is technically termed, begun to pass through the first pair of rollers, than it is received by the second pair which are made to revolve with (as the case may be) 3, 4, or 5 times the velocity of the first pair. By this admirable contrivance, the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of tenuity; a twist being given to it by the adaptation of the spindle and fly of the common flax-wheel to the machinery. Such is the principle on which Sir Richard Arkwright constructed his famous spinning frame. It is obvious that it is radically and completely different from the previous methods of spinning, either by the common hand-wheel or distaff, or by the jenny, which is only a modification of the common wheel. Spinning by rollers was an entirely original idea; and it is difficult which to admire most-the profound and fortunate sagacity which led to so great a discovery, or the consummate skill and address by which it was so speedily perfected, and reduced to practice. Since the dissolution of Sir Richard Arkwright's patent, in 1785, the progress of discovery and improvement in every department of the manufacture has been most rapid. The mule-jenny-so called from its being a compound of the jenny and the spinning frame-invented by Mr. Crompton, and the power-loom, invented by the Rev. Mr. Cartwright, are machines that have had the most powerful influence over the manufacture; and in consequence of their introduction, and of innumerable other inventions and improvements, the prices of cotton cloth and yarn have gone on progressively diminishing. But as the demand for cottons has been, owing to their extraordinary cheapness, extended in a still greater degree, the value of the goods produced, and the number of persons employed in the manufacture, are now decidedly greater than at any previous period. 2. Imports of Cotton Wool. Countries whence it is imported. Prices, Duties, &c.—The following Tables have been partly taken from official documents, and partly from the accounts of merchants of great experience. We believe they may be relied on as approaching as near to accuracy as it is possible to attain to in such matters. Cotton Wool imported, exported, and entered for Consumption, from 1820 to 1841. Account of the Imports and Exports of Cotton Wool into and from Great Britain, from 1697 to 1819. 1839 389,396,539 352,000,277 1840 592,488,010 528,142,743 1841 487,992,355 437,093,631 Previously to 1790, North America did not supply us with a single pound weight of raw cotton. A little had, indeed, been raised in some of the Southern States, for domestic use, before the revolutionary war, but the quantity was quite inconsiderable. There is, in the new edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, a pretty full account of the life of Sir Richard Arkwright. The question as to his merit as an original discoverer is still undecided. Recently, however, it has been ascertained that a patent for spinning by rollers, revolving with different degrees of velocity, was taken out by Messrs. Wyatt and Paul, so early as 1738.-(See the History of the Cotton Manufacture, by Edward Baines, jun., Esq.) But it does not appear that the inventors had been able to give effect to their happy idea, and all traces of the invention seem to have been lost. The statements in the case printed by Sir Richard Arkwright and his partners in 1782 show that he was aware of the attempts made in the reign of George II. to spin by machinery; but there is no evidence to prove that he was acquainted with the principle on which these attempts had been made, or that he had seen the patent referred to. Undoubtedly, however, the probability seems to be that he had. But, admitting this to be the case, it detracts but little from the substantial merits of Sir Richard Arkwright, If the idea of spinning by rollers did not spring up spontaneously in his mind, he was, at all events, the first who made it available in practice, and showed how it might be rendered a most prolific source of wealth. In 1791, it began, for the first time, to be exported; the trifling quantity of 189,316 lbs. having been shipped in the course of that year, and 138,328 lbs. in 1792. Such was the late and feeble beginning of the American cotton trade. There is nothing in the history of industry to compare with its subsequent increase, unless it be the growth of the manufacture in this country. American cotton, which is of two kinds, is generally known by the names of sea-island and upland. The first, which is the finest cotton imported into Great Britain, grows on the small sandy islands and along the low sandy shores of Carolina and Virginia. It is long in the staple, of an even silky texture, and is easily separated from the seed. Unluckily, however, it can be raised only in certain situations; so that its quantity is limited, and has not, in fact, been increased since 1805. The upland, of which the supply may be considered as unlimited, though of varying qualities, is all short-stapled; and its separation from the seed is so very difficult, that if it be done by the hand, the cotton is hardly worth the labour. This, however, was the only way in which it could be made available for home use, or exportation, previously to 1793; and had any one then ventured to predict that 10,000,000 lbs. of upland cotton would ever be exported, he would have been looked upon as a visionary dreamer. But the genius of Mr. Eli Whitney did for the planters of the Southern States what the genius of Arkwright and Watt did for the manufacturers of England. He invented a machine by which the wool of the upland cotton is separated from the seed with the greatest facility and expedition, and by so doing laid the foundation of a new and most important branch of industry, and doubled the wealth and means of employment of his countrymen!—(Pitkin's Statistics of the U. States, p. 109. ed. 1835.) Whitney's invention came into operation in 1793, and in 1794, 1,601,760 lbs., and in 1795, 5,276,300 lbs. of cotton were exported. And so astonishing has been the growth of cotton in the interval, that the exports from the United States in 1849 amounted to the prodigious quantity of 1,026,602,269 lbs. ! of which 1,014,633,010 lbs. were upland! Account specifying the Quantities of Cotton Wool imported from different Countries into the United Kingdom during the 3 Years ending with 1850, and the Total Quantities imported. An Account of the Export of Cotton from the U. States, in each Year, from 1821 to 1850, both inc.; showing, also, its Average Price per lb., and its Gross Value. Account showing the Destination of the Cotton exported from the U. States in 1846, 1847, 1848 and 1849. N. B.-The sea-island cotton, amounting to 11,969,259 lbs., is excluded from the exports in the foregoing table for 1849. Including them, the total exports for that year were 1,026,602,269 lbs. Though not official, the following statements give, it is believed, a correct view of the produce of the cotton crops in America available for foreign shipments, from 1824-25 down to 1849-50. (See opposite page.) It was for many years the practice to levy a duty on cotton wool, when imported. The policy of such a duty is, however, very questionable; and it is indispensable that, if imposed at all, it should be kept at a low rate. For a number of years previously to 1831, it amounted (on foreign cotton) to 6 cent. ad valorem; but, in order to make 11,780,673 20,463,690 848,998 527,219,958 12,953 814,274,431 Account of the Produce of the Cotton Crops of the U. States from 1824-25 down to 1849-50 both incl. up, in part at least, for the loss of revenue caused by the repeal of the duty on printed cottons (see CALICO), it was raised in that year to 58. 10d. a cwt Such a duty would, however, have materially affected the imports of the inferior species of cotton and the price of coarse goods; and being, in consequence, justly objected to, it was reduced in 1833 to 28. 11d. a cwt. But the imposition of any duty on the raw material of so important a manufacture being deemed objectionable, it was finally abolished in 1845. It had previously produced between 600,000l. and 700,000l. a-year. The subjoined table, taken from the carefully compiled and comprehensive annual statement of Messrs. George Holt and Co., eminent cotton brokers of Liverpool, dated 31st of December, 1850, shows in a very striking manner the progress of the manufacture in this country, and the fall in the price of cotton wool. The manufacture declined in 1847, but that was wholly owing to the decrease in the supplies of raw cotton from the U. States in 1846-47, and the consequent rise in its price. Statement of the Imports into, the Exports from, and of the Consumption, Prices, &c. of Cotton Wool in, Great Britain, in different Years, from 1816 to 1850, both inclusive. N. B. Messrs. Holt and Co. estimate the average weight of the packages imported in 1850 at 390 lbs. per bag Upland; 455 lbs. Orleans and Alabama; 333 lbs. Sea Island; 182 lbs. Brazil; 245 lbs. Egyptian; 3×3 lbs. East Indian; and 210 lbs. West Indian. 3. Proportion of Coarse to Fine Goods. During the twenty years ending with 1846, the cotton manufacture underwent a singular change in respect of the average fineness of its products. As successive improvements were made in the construction and management of machinery, and in the experience and manual skill of the work-people, the proportion of fine to coarse yarns and fabrics might have been expected to make a corresponding increase, whereas it was, on the contrary, very greatly diminished. During the period referred to the consumption of cotton increased nearly four-fold; but the quantity of fine yarn produced (i. e., of yarn above sixty hanks to the pound), instead of keeping pace with the increased consumption of cotton, really underwent a positive and by no means inconsiderable reduction. For a number of years no new establishments for the production of fine yarns were formed; but in Manchester alone about twenty mills that had been employed chiefly or entirely in fine spinning were given up, or devoted to the production of coarse yarns. To some extent, no doubt, the diminution of produce arising from this cause was countervailed by an increase in the speed of the machinery at work; but after making all reasonable allowances on that score, there can be no doubt that the total produce of fine yarn was materially decreased. This conclusion is strengthened by the falling off which took place in the imports of Sea Island cotton, which is used almost exclusively in the production of very fine yarn. The This change in the average fineness of cotton fabrics could not be ascribed to foreign competition, for fine spinning is precisely that branch of the trade in which English cotton-spinners most excel their rivals abroad; and the tariffs of most foreign countries are framed in the view of excluding coarse rather than fine fabrics. It was sometimes attributed to one of those capricious changes of taste and fashion which frequently operate disadvantageously on particular manufacturing pursuits; but it was too long in operation, and proceeded too gradually and uniformly, to be so accounted for. and it is abundantly certain that powerful natural causes must have been in operation, otherwise so extensive an alteration could not have been brought about in the average fineness of the yarn produced. These causes are by no means obvious; but we incline to think that the reduction which has taken place in the price of silk, and still more the prodigious improvements which have been made in various descriptions of worsted fabrics, have had no inconsiderable influence in lessening the demand for fine cottons. main cause, however, will, no doubt, be found in the great reduction which took place in the price of raw cotton during the ten years ending with 1846, and the consequent greater cheapness of stout and serviceable fabrics. And this conclusion has been fully verified by the circumstances under which the trade has been placed since 1846. The supplies of cotton in 1847 and 1850 were at once deficient in quantity and high-priced. The cost of the heavier fabrics, which contain comparatively large quantities of cotton, consequently rose in a nearly corresponding proportion. The spinners endeavoured to obviate these effects, partly by ceasing to produce some of the coarsest fabrics, and partly by generally increasing the fineness of their yarn; and it is astonishing to what an extent they are thus able to countervail a rise of prices. It is found, in fact, that an advance of a penny per pound in the price of the material speedily and invariably causes an increase of two or three hanks in the average produce and fineness of the yarn per pound. 4. Value of the British Cotton Manufacture in 1846. Amount of Capital, and Number of Persons employed in it. It would be very desirable to be able to form a tolerably accurate estimate of the present value of the cotton manufacture, and of the number of persons employed in its different departments; but the data on which such estimates are founded being necessarily very loose, it is impossible to arrive at any thing like precision. Perhaps, however, the following calculations may not be very wide of the mark. In 1817, Mr. Kennedy, a well-informed manufacturer, in a paper published in the Manchester Transactions, estimated the number of persons employed in the spinning of cotton in Great Britain at 110,763; the aid they derived from steam engines as equal to the power of 20,768 horses; and the number of spindles in motion at 6,645,833. Mr. Kennedy further estimated the number of hanks of yarn annually produced at 3,987,500,000; and the quantity of coal consumed in their production at 500,479 tons. We subjoin Mr. Kennedy's statement for the year 1817: Raw cotton converted into yarn in the U. Kingdom : 110,000,000 lbs. : 10,312,500 Number of spindles employed, each spindle being supposed to produce 2 hanks per day, at 300 working days in the year Quantity of yarn produced Number of hanks, taking the average at 40 per Ib. Number of persons employed in spinning, supposing each to produce 120 hanks per day 99,687,500 lbs. 3,987,500,000 6,615,833 110,763 20,768 Four ounces and a half of coal estimated to produce one hank of No. 40.; and 130 lbs. of coal per day equal to one horse power. But the cotton manufacture has increased immensely since 1817. Mr. Huskisson stated in his place in the House of Commons, in March, 1824, that the total value of the cotton goods and yarn then annually manufactured in Great Britain amounted to $3 millions sterling! But there can be no manner of doubt that this estimate was excessively overrated; and we do not think we should be warranted in estimating the whole annual value of the products in question in 1845 and 1846 at more than 36 millions sterling. If, indeed, we took the increase in the imports of the raw material as any test of the increase in the value of the manufacture, we should estimate it a great deal higher. But it will be afterwards seen that the improvements that have been made in the different processes, and the fall in the price of raw cotton, have had so powerful an influence in reducing the price of the goods brought to market, that, notwithstanding the increase of their quantity, their total value must have remained, for some time past, nearly constant. The average annual quantity of cotton wool imported, after deducting the exports, may be taken at about 550,000,000lbs. weight. It is supposed, that of this quantity about 50,000,000lbs. are used in a raw or half manufactured state, leaving a balance of 500,000,000lbs. for the purposes of manufacturing, the cost of which may be taken, at an average, at 5d. per lb. Deducting, therefore, from the total value of the manufactured goods, or 36,000,000l., the value of the raw material, amounting to about 10,000,0002 (10,413,000l. at 5d. per lb.), there remains 26,000,000l.; which, of course, forms the fund whence the wages of the persons employed in the various departments of the manufacture, the profits of the capitalists, the sums required to repair the wear and tear of buildings, machinery, &c., the expense of coals, flour for dressing, &c., must all be derived. If, then, we had any means of ascertaining how this fund is distributed, we should be able, by taking the average of wages and profits, to form a pretty accurate estimate of the number of labourers, and the quantity of capital employed. But here, unfortunately, we have only probabilities and analogies to guide us. It may, however, be confidently assumed, in the first place, that in consequence of the extensive employment of highly valuable machinery in all the departments of the cotton manufacture, the proportion which the profits of capital, and the sum to be set aside to replace its wear and tear, bears to the whole value of the manufacture, must be much larger than in almost any other department of industry. We have heard this proportion variously estimated, at from a third to two thirds of the total value of the manufactured goods, exclusive of the raw material; and as the weight of authority seems to be pretty much divided on the subject, we shall take an intermediate proportion. Assuming, therefore, that the profits of the capital employed in the cotton manufacture, the wages of superintendence, &c., the sum required to replace the wear and tear of machinery, buildings, &c., and to furnish flour, coals, &c., amount together to half the value of the manufactured goods, exclusive of the raw material, or to 13,000,000l., a sum of 13,000,000l. will remain as the wages of the spinners, weavers, bleachers, &c. engaged in the manufacture; and taking, inasmuch as a large proportion of women, and children under 16 years of age, are employed, the average rate of wages at only 24l. a year, we shall have (dividing 13,000,000 by 24) nearly 542,000 as the total number of persons directly employed in the different departments of the manufacture. We should mistake, however, if we supposed that this number, great as it certainly is, comprised the whole number of persons to whom the cotton manufacture furnishes subsistence, exclusive of the capitalists. Of the sum of 13,000,000l. set apart as the profit of the capitalists, and the sum required to furnish coal, and to defray the wear and tear of machinery, &c., a large proportion must annually be laid out in paying the wages of engineers, machine-makers, iron-founders, smiths, joiners, masons, bricklayers, &c. It is not easy to say what this proportion may amount to; but taking it at 4,000,000l., and supposing the rate of wages of each individual to average 50l. a year, the total number employed in the various capacities alluded to will be (4,000,000 divided by 50) 80,000; and a sum of 9,000,000l. will remain to cover the profits of the capital employed in the various branches of the manufacture, to repair the different parts of the machinery and buildings as they wear out, and to buy coal, flour *, &c. The account will, therefore, stand as under: — Total value of every description of cotton goods annually manufactured in Great Britain - 36,000,000 Raw material, 500,000,000 lbs. at 5d. per lb. £10,000,000 Wages of 542,000 weavers, spinners, bleachers, &c. at 241. a year each Wages of 80,000 engineers, machine-makers, smiths, masons, joiners, &c. at 501. a year each Frofits of the manufacturers, wages of superintendence, suins to purchase the materials of machinery, coals, &c. The capital employed may be estimated as follows:Capital employed in the purchase of the raw material Capital employed in payment of wages Capital vested in spinning-mills, power and hand-looms, workshops, warehouses, stocks on hand, &c. £17,000,000 Now, this sum of 47,000,000l., supposing the interest of capital, inclusive of the wages of superintendence &c., to amount to 10 per cent., will yield a sum of 4,700,000l. ; which being deducted from the 9,000,000l. profits, &c., leaves 4,300,000l., to defray the waste f capital, the flour required for dressing, the coals necessary in the employmen' of the steam engines, to effect insurances, and to meet all other outgoings. The aggregate amount of wages, according to the above estimate, is 17,000,000l.; but there are not many departments of the business in which wages have to be advanced more than 6 months before the article is sold. We, therefore, incline to think that 8,000,000l. is a sufficient (perhaps too great) allowance for the capital employed in the payment of wages. It may be said by some that this estimate is under, and by others that it is overrated; but we believe it will be found to be nearly correct, though, if any thing, it may, perhaps, be a little in excess. Misled by Mr. Huskisson's authority, we estimated, in the former edition of this work, the value of the cotton stuffs and yarn produced in the United Kingdom in 1834, at 34,000,000l.; but further inquiry has convinced us that this estimate was far beyond the mark; and it is to be borne in mind, that though the consumption of raw cotton has vastly increased since 1834, there has been in the interval a very considerable fall in its price, and in the prices of the manu *This is a much more important item than might be at first supposed. Flour is indispensable in the dressing of webs; and we are well assured that its consumption in this way is not less than 300,000 barrels a year! |
