highly concentrated solution of chloride of zinc; then set aside in order to permit of the gradual deposition of crystals of lactate of zinc, but inasmuch as some of the lactic acid and all the kreatin, &c., remained in solution, he treated the mother liquor with oxide of lead, which effected a complete separation of the acid from the neutral substances. The lactate of lead was transformed into the characteristic lime salt (exhibited) by boiling the precipitate with sulphuric acid and then neutralising with chalk. The kreatin and kreatinin were recovered by evaporating the solution to dryness and treating with alcohol, in which the latter is very soluble, the kreatin was afterwards taken up by water and crystallised from aqueous solution. In the course of these researches the author observed an anomaly in the fact that very large quantities of albumen were dissolved out from muscular tissue by the action of water; he started with the supposition that flesh was a colloid, and, as such, would not permit of the outward diffusion of albumen. This experimental result stood apparently in opposition to the laws of liquid diffusion, but there was a difference in the character of albumen, that contained in blood requiring a higher temperature to coagulate it than the albumen of flesh. In order to make this point more clear, Dr. Marcet showed at the meeting the comparative results of two experiments: one was a piece of beef merely immersed in water to which it had already in the course of the day imparted a red colour and some soluble albumen, whilst in a second glass some juice of flesh inclosed securely within a pig's bladder showed no signs of albumen after twelve hours. The structure of a piece of muscular tissue cannot then bear any comparison with an ordinary colloidal septum, as was at first supposed. Further, if a piece of flesh be immersed in liquid gelatine and the whole allowed to set, no albumen passed out until the sixth or seventh day, when a red zone appeared in the jelly around the meat and faintly coloured the isinglass. The author next made experiments of a similar kind, but with very delicate animal membranes, such as that which covers the liver in the ox and sheep. This membrane, thin as gold-beater's skin, was made into dialysers, which being charged with juice of flesh allowed variable quantities of albumen to pass during the first day. The structure of flesh must, therefore, be defined as consisting of an infinite number of delicate membranes through which the liquids may constantly circulate by capillary motion. Dr. Marcet next addressed himself to the following inquiry? Are the various soluble constituents of meat equally diffusible? and, particularly, whether is albumen or phosphoric acid more readily transmitted through animal membranes? For a truly comparative experiment the author made quantitative analyses of the aqueous extract of beef, and of the aqueous diffusate from a precisely similar quantity of beef. Two hundred grammes of meat were treated in each case with 125 cubic centimetres of distilled water, and it was found that, in the case of the extract, the phosphoric acid was in proportion to the albumen as 1: 125, whilst the liquid diffusate, after twenty-six hours, contained the same constituents in the ratio of 1: 63; thus it was proved that the albumen was only half as diffusible as the phosphoric acid. In another experiment, which lasted four days and confirmed the former result, the ratios of phosphoric acid to albumen were respectively 1:9.5 in the extract, and 1 : 4'4 in the aqueous diffusate. The speed at which albumen will pass through an animal membrane is, however, mainly regulated by the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the fluid, and the author found that when the liquid was decidedly alkaline, a mere trace only of albumen was allowed to pass. The same observation was equally applicable to the dialytic analysis of urine, and was particularly noticed when baryta water had been employed in slight excess for the purpose of precipitating the phosphates and sulphates. Reverting to the practical part of the question, Dr. Marcet (CHEMICAL NEWS, Nov. 26, 1864. pointed out the fact that not only was there a loss of nutritive constituents during the process of salting, but when subsequently it was desired to cook the meat it was usually immersed for some time in pure water to remove the great excess of salt. Here, likewise, there was a waste of valuable constituents which could by a modification in the treatment be avoided. The author proposed to cut the meat into small pieces, add from 10 to 20 per cent. of common salt, and fill into sausage skins or bladders. The whole should then be immersed in a concentrated brine until the meat was deemed to have been sufficiently impregnated throughout. At the end of a month, during the hottest season of last year, the meat was found upon trial to have a better flavour and to be more tender than that cured in the usual way. If desired, much of the salt could be removed from the sausage meat by soaking the skins in fresh water; and the author, in conclusion, recommended that whenever it was necessary to remove the excess of salt from meat, cured either on this principle or in the ordinary manner, the joint should be securely wrapped in a bladder before being introduced into water, and thus a considerable proportion of the nutritive matters be retained. The PRESIDENT felt greatly interested in the subject of Dr. Marcet's investigation. It was well known that waste occurred; the question to be settled was how this could best be avoided. He wished to ask the lecturer whether in the experiment before them he relied upon the red colour of the liquid as being the sole indication of the presence of albumen ? Dr. MARCET replied that he always found the red colouring matter accompanying the albumen; there was no philosophical reason for this being the case, but chemical tests invariably proved it. The red blood-corpuscles were, of course, destroyed, and their coloured contents became mixed with the albumen. Professor GRAHAM considered that the lecturer had treated of muscular mass too much in the light of a homogeneous substance; it would be better to distinguish between the fibrous and fluid ingredients somewhat as water in a sponge, and if then by mechanical forces the meat suffered contraction, as when immersed in salt, the fluids were ejected as a necessary consequence, and not so much by virtue of a dialytic action, as had just now been represented. If threads of fibrin were soaked first in acetic acid, and then removed into salt-brine, they would be found to contract very considerably. With regard to the dialytic transfer of albumen, the speaker thought it desirable to make further experiments before this could be confidently asserted; it was necessary to bear in mind the difficulty of procuring absolutely perfect dialysers, animal membranes were never water-tight, and even thick bladders had sensible apertures through which albumen itself could flow out, especially under the pressure of a few inches of water. It was always necessary to take the precaution of testing the dialysers before their employment. Dr. MARCET could not allow that the structure of muscular tissue bore any comparison with water in a sponge, for he had never succeeded in expressing any liquid from a piece of meat, even under a hydraulic press; it was impossible to get evidence upon a dry sheet of filter paper of the expulsion of more than traces of fluid or moisture; then it must be remembered that he had employed pure water, not brine, in the experiments by which albumen had been extracted; meat always contracts and becomes hardened under the influence of salt. With respect to the preparation of the animal membranes, he had torn them from the sheep's liver in preference to removing them by the aid of a dissecting knife, so as purposely to shut out this source of error. Dr. A. W. HOFMANN referred briefly to the new plan proposed by Dr. Morgan, of Dublin, for salting animals whole. Immediately after slaughtering, a communication was established between the principal arteries and a reser NEWS voir of salt brine placed at a high-level, the effect of which ensured the diffusion of salt through the meat by a process of injection. The published statements affirmed that for the cost of sixpence halfpenny, and in the course of ten minutes, a whole ox could be preserved. Dr. PAUL made a further statement on the same subject, and said that the quantity of salt might now be so much diminished that it became unnecessary to wash the meat preparatory to cooking. Dr. CRACE CALVERT warmly advised the undertaking of chemico-physiological experiments in connection with the intestinal absorption of food. A paper was read by Professor WANKLYN "On the Nature of Compound Ethers," an abstract of which shall appear in our next number. The meeting was then adjourned until December 1. LECTURES ON CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY.-VII. Delivered at the College of France, by M. A. WURTZ. Condensed Types. We have seen the advantages of the theory of types in two respects-in the clearness with which it enables us to interpret the metamorphoses of bodies, and in the relationship it establishes between mineral and organic compounds. Let us now pursue the subject further and apply the theory to a higher order of compounds. We shall treat to-day of condensed types, and follow the relations which the typical notation establishes between certain groups of mineral and organic compounds, and endeavour further to account for the part which polyatomic radicals play in the generation of complex compounds. We have already explained the real meaning of the typical formula of acetic acid H (C,H,O2)" 02 H2 f Chloride of succinyle. indicates, in fact, that the formation of the acid is effected by a double substitution which implies the equivalence of CHO2 to H, and to Cl; that is to say, implies the diatomicity of succinyle, and consequently of the acid. The typical formula suggests that succinic acid can form two kinds of salts and two kinds of ethers according as we replace one or two atoms of the typical or extra-radical hydrogen by one or two metallic atoms, or one or two molecules of alcoholic radicals; that the acid can form two chlorides according as we replace one or two of the groups HO by chlorine, C,H,O,Cl, and Co CHO NH. Thus these typical formulæ express very clearly the manner in which all these bodies are derived from succinic acid, and the bonds which unite them to it. We may remark further that the notation allows us to foresee the existence of a chloro-succinic acid, a sort of succinic chlorhydrine which has not yet been prepared. The formulæ by which we represent the polyatomic alcohols give us the same kind of information. We represent glycol by H (CHO, derived from the type o2 and we represent glycerine by (CH) 03 or belonging to the type The formula of glycol H3 indicates to us that in this compound one or two atoms of hydrogen are replaceable by one or two atoms of acid radicals; that one or two groups HO* may be replaced by Cl, Br, or NH2. The formula of glycerine (CH)03 H3 teaches us that in this compound one, two, or three atoms of hydrogen, and one, two, or three molecules HO may be exchanged for new elements or new groups to form a multitude of compounds, the existence of which we can thus foresee, and the conditions of whose formation we can determine. Glycol, for example, in this way gives rise to two chlorides Monochlorhydrie glycol. Chloride of ethylene. Glycerine in the same way gives three chlorides(C2H1)" H2J Cl O2 (CH) } o Monochlorhydrine. Cl2 (CH)"" Cl2 Dichlorhydrine. Terchlorhydrine. Let us now see whether any compounds exist in mineral chemistry which we can compare with the foregoing-that is to say, which we can bring under the type of condensed water. Let us compare succinic with sulphuric acid. The former we have said is formed by the reaction of chloride of succinyle upon water. Well, it is the same with sulphuric acid. When chloride of sulphuryle reacts upon water sulphuric acid is formed: according as we replace one or two of the groups HO by (C3H6)" 3 (HO). 258 Lectures on Chemical Philosophy-Academy of Sciences. shows us all that at a glance; it clearly expresses all the principal properties of this acid, which you now see we are justified in comparing with succinic acid, and regarding as a bibasic and diatomic mineral acid. We have already compared the alcohols of organic chemistry to the hydrates of mineral chemistry. Thus, to hydrate of limeH2 Ca" H2 O2, derived from the type 202 we have compared glycol This comparison is formed on a perfect similarity of metamorphoses. Hydrate of calcium is formed by adding water to lime. Glycol is produced in just the same way by placing oxide of ethylene in contact with water. Ca"O+H2O=Ca′′ Hydrate of calcium. (C2H)"O+H2O=(C2H1)" Oxide of ethylene. H2 Hydrate of ethylene In the same way we are justified in comparing hydrate of ethylene to the hydrates of some other diatomic metals. The typical formula of glycol indicates to us that this body may form two kinds of salts, just as the formula of the hydrate Cu" teaches us that two kinds of cupric salts can exist. Thus, by combining with acetic acid, glycol gives rise to the two following compounds : (C2H)" (CHEMICAL NEWS, Nov. 26, 1864. Society, and was published in the last number of the Proceedings, from which we may make an abstract. M. Pisani presented a note " On a new Cornish Mineral" which he has named Devilline. In reference to this paper we must call the attention of our readers to a note by Mr. Maskelyne in our "Correspondence." According to M. Pisani, Devilline has the composition— (CuCaFe)3S+3Aq. M. Oppenheim made a communication "On the Heat of Combustion of Formic Acid." Berthelot, from his synthetical experiments, regards formic acid as carbonic oxide plus water, but he has been puzzled by the observation that its combustion disengaged more heat than that of carbonic oxide, the water in the acid furnishing none. He concluded that in its formation some absorption of heat takes place, which is to M. Berthelot inexplicable. M. Oppenheim thinks that the typical formula of formic acid CHO H explains it. The formula shows that formic acid is not a simple compound of carbonic oxide and water, but a combination of the radical formyle with peroxide of hydrogen. Thus in its formation water is decomposed into H and HO, the H first uniting with carbonic oxide to form formyle, which then combines with HO. This decomposition of water the author considers occasions the absorption of heat. In like manner, when the formic acid is produced according to Kolbe's method by the action of carbonic anhydride and potassium on the vapour of water, carbonic anhydride splits up into CO and O, in which case, also, absorption of heat takes place, and thus the heat of combustion of formic acid is equal to that of the combustion of carbonic oxide plus the heat absorbed in its formation, and the absorption is explained by the decomposition of the water or carbonic acid. The author further expresses an opinion that the facts mentioned show the influence In the same way cupric hydrate forms with acetic acid which the position an atom occupies in a compound has upon its physical properties, and believes that the theory of types, originally intended merely to indicate the reactions of compounds, may also be made the means of expressing their physical properties. M. Berthelot, in a note "On Formic Acid," questions this; he says that the explanation of the anomaly observed must be sought through physical and mechanical experiments, and not in the imaginary arrangements of a formula, He shows that in the union of carbonic oxide and water, the synthesis of formic acid is direct, and no accessory products are formed. It is in this case that the calorific anomaly is most evident. In Kolbe's experiment, a quantity of hydrate of potash is formed, which must have some influence. M. Berthelot then compares formic with acetic acid, acids belonging to the same series, and comparable by their chemical constitution, whatever formule they may be represented by. But the combustion of acetic acid disengages the same amount of heat as the combustion of the products of its decomposition, carbonic acid and marsh gas, or carbonic acid, water, and acetone. No formula, he adds, will enable us to foresee the calorific properties of formic acid. In conclusion, M. Berthelot announces the speedy publication of a memoir, in which he will show that the vapour of formic acid submitted to a high temperature decomposes with a considerable disengagement of heat, and that the decomposition may be at will into carbonic oxide and water, or carbonic acid and hydrogen. MM. Caron and Margueritte continue their dispute about the cementation of iron by carbons and carbonic oxide. The former says that soot will not make steel any more than graphite. The latter says what he has said before. Two notes, one by M. Des Cloizeaux, and the other by M. Daubree, announce the discovery of Breunnerite, a crystallised carbonate of magnesia and iron, in the remarkable meteorite which fell at Orgueil. A third note, by M. Cloez, announces that the same meteorite contained NEWS a little more than one-half per cent. of carbonic acid small facts, but valuable, since the presence of this crystallised carbonate proves that the meteorite could never have been exposed to a very high temperature. NOTICES OF BOOKS. Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical. Part II. THE sale of two editions of an educational work on the In the present state of chemical science we might say it has become a difficult matter to write a completely satisfactory educational work on chemistry. An author has two courses open to him. He may adhere to the old notation, and give in an appendix an account of new theories and systems of notation, or he may construct his book entirely upon recent theories, and leave all previous notations out of consideration. Neither of these plans we think, is altogether satisfactory. A student may never read an appendix, and consequently remain in ignorance of what it is very desirable that he should know; and if he have studied only the new notation he runs the risk of being mystified whenever he takes up a book on the old. We are thinking of a student who does not devote himself exclusively to chemistry, but who should be so taught the elements of the science that he may supplement his knowledge from our current literature, which has no system. In this volume Dr. Miller has adopted the new atomic weights, and written all the formulæ according to it. He has, however, placed at the beginning a general note as follows: "N.B.-In the formulæ adopted in this volume the symbols for the new atomic weights are in accordance with the present usual and convenient practice, indicated by barred letters, instead of by italics as in the first volume. The conversion of any formula on the new notation into that in ordinary use is effected by doubling the numbers attached to the barred symbols. The result will be either the ordinary formula or its multiple by two. KHO, for instance, KHO,; and SnCl=zSnCl. When we have quoted this, and said that large additions have been made to this edition to bring the work up to the present state of the science, we have said all that is necessary to convince our readers of its value as an introduction to the study of chemistry. = A Manual of Qualitative Analysis. By ROBERT GALLOWAY, F.C.S. Fourth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. London: Churchill and Son. 1864. constant use of marks of quotation with and without references to the authorities. These quotations swell the book to unnecessary dimensions, when the simple mention of a fact with a reference at the bottom of the page would answer every purpose. Lastly, we would recommend Mr. Galloway to reconsider Part II., the greater part of which might well be omitted from this book, and largely added to in a separate work. The subject of systematic proximate organic analysis has not yet received the attention it deserves. Annalen der Chemie und der Pharmacie. October, 1864. THE next paper is by Arnulf Schertel "On Sulphonaph- and bisulphide of naphthalin (C,H,)S2. The author's experiments proved that these changes really take place. He kept the chlorosulphonaphthalic acid in contact with nascent hydrogen (from zinc and dilute SO3) for twenty-four hours, and then by distillation obtained a heavy disagreeable smelling oil, which, after rectification, was analysed, and found to be the sulphohydrate expected. It is a light, refractive liquid, with a faint disagreeable odour, is soluble in ether and alcohol, but not miscible with water. Like all mercaptans it easily exchanges an atom of hydrogen for a metal. The author describes the compounds with mercury, lead, and copper. An alcoholic solution saturated with ammoniacal gas, and left in the air for some days, deposited yellow transparent crystals of bisulphide of naphthalin, CH,S,. This body on treatment with nascent hydrogen reverts to the former compound. This paper is followed by a communication, " On Some Derivatives of Mucic Acid," by F. Bode. Lies-Bodart had observed that mucic acid heated with pentachloride of phosphorus, and treated with water, gave rise to a new acid with the composition-2HO,C,H,Cl2O. The author has further examined this acid, and some of its salts, and an ether. He obtained the acid by heating six equivalents of pentachloride of phosphorus with one equivalent of mucic acid in a retort. As the temperature rose oxy-chloride At 120° C. the distillation of phosphorus distilled over. into a large quantity of water, whereupon the new acid was stopped, and the residue in the retort was poured separated as a white, sandy powder. There seems to be nothing peculiar in the behaviour of the acid or its salts. When this acid is submitted to the action of sodium amalgam and water, another acid, free from chlorine, is obtained-2HO, CHO-to which the author has given We can always give praise to Mr. Galloway's educational the name Muconic acid. This acid only differs from works. They are invariably written upon a system and itaconic acid-2HO,CHO-by two atoms of carbon founded on experience, and the teaching is clear, and in and two of hydrogen, and from adipinic acid-2HO,C,,HO general complete. Few works on qualitative analysis have-by two of hydrogen. The author endeavoured to prepare been more studied than the previous editions of this an acid-2HÓ,C,,H,O,—and also to convert muconic into manual, and the present edition will commend itself to adipinic acid by the action of nascent hydrogen, but withteachers and students by some marked improvements. out success. The most peculiar property of muconic acid Nevertheless, it would not be difficult to find fault with is the readiness with which it etherifies. It is only neces⚫ the book. The system does not appear to us perfect. We sary to heat the acid with absolute alcohol to obtain a are puzzled, for instance, on reading par. 27 by finding large amount of ether, which is a colourless, oily fluid, an asterisk directing us to a foot-note which tells the heavier than water, with an agreeable odour. student to pass on to par. 96, the information given between these two paragraphs being absolutely necessary for the proper understanding of what follows. We notice also some small omissions. The author, for instance, forgets to mention that most delicate and characteristic test for sulphur, nitroprusside of sodium. We object also to the A paper," On Secondary Alcohols," by Kolbe, gives the author's views of the constitution of Wurtz's "Hydrate of Amylene." It will be remembered that by treating pure amylic alcohol with chloride of zinc Wurtz obtained amylene CH10. With this body he formed the compound C10H10, HI, and now, on treating the latter com › 260 Notices of Books-Notices of Patents. { CHEMICAL NEws, Nov. 26, 1864. pound with moist oxide of silver, he eliminated the iodine amylene or pseudo alcohol the author thinks that the and fixed a molecule of water, thus forming a body the eleventh atom of hydrogen is not so strongly united as composition of which is represented by C, H,,H,O, a body the corresponding atom in the amylic group H This isomeric with amylic alcohol, and which Wurtz calls hy- eleventh atom of hydrogen is that which the hydriodic drate of amylene. Beyond identity of ultimate composi- acid fixed upon the amylene on combining with it tion, this compound has nothing in common with amylic GH,HI. In the hydrate, in which the group OH realcohol, and the question arises what is it to be regarded places the iodine, the eleventh atom becomes somehow as? Wurtz's own views on the question we shall have part of the radical, and saturates the affinities of a certain occasion to give presently. Kolbe, we may say shortly, atom of carbon, but since it is very easily separated it regards it as a secondary alcohol. By a secondary alcohol seems as if this eleventh atom of hydrogen was in conthe author means a body in which two of the typical hy-nexion with the entire amylene group, the atomicity of drogen atoms in a typical alcohol are substituted by two which is thus reduced by one unit. This view is expressed atoms of some other alcohol radicals. Thus, starting with by the formula methylic as the typical alcohol, we may have which gives us to understand that hydrate of amylene is not, properly speaking, a binary compound of amylene and water (for water does not exist in it ready formed), but that its molecule may very easily break up in the way its name suggests. We may expect a long dispute between Würtz and Kolbe respecting the nature of this body. The other papers in this number of the Annales are-the memoir" On Pyroxylin," by Pelouze and Maurey, which we have already published; "Researches on Hydrocyanic Acid," by Bussy and Buignet, some account of which we gave in our last volume; and some "Researches on the Organic Matters in Water," by Peligot, which last requires some notice. NOTICES OF PATENTS. Communicated by Mr. VAUGHAN, PATENT AGENT, 54, Chancery Grants of Provisional Protection for Six Months. 2311. Leonard Cooke, Horwich, Lancashire, "Improvements in the manufacture of paper cloth."-Petition recorded September 21, 1864. 2497. John Ives Vaughan, Appleton-in-Widnes, Lanca. shire, "Improvements in the manufacture of resins and refining of coal, petroleum, and bone oils, and also parafparts of such improvements being also applicable to the fine and analogous acids and hydrocarbons."-Petition re corded October 11, 1864. Rise, Islington, Middlesex, "Improvements in the prepa2511. Johannes Möller, Shaftesbury Villas, Hornsey ration or manufacture of colouring matter for markingink and other purposes."-Petition recorded October 12, 1864. Bayswater, Middlesex, "Improvements in the manufac2594. Louis Henry Gustavus Ehrhardt, Richmond Road, ture of gunpowder, and in flasks to contain the same."Petition recorded October 20, 1864. Annales de Chimie et de Physique. October, 1864, In this Journal we have Wurtz's "Memoir on Isomer-resinous substances, and in the apparatus employed therein, ism in Alcohols and Glycols," the first part of which is devoted to the above-named hydrate of amylene and its derivatives. We may mention in passing that this pseudoamylic alcohol, when submitted to the action of oxidising agents, does not furnish valerianic acid, but a complex mixture composed principally of acetic acid, with which are found hydrate of butylene and various acetones. There are other differences quite as marked between the behaviour of the pseudo and the true amylic alcohol. Thus, true amylic alcohol and its derivatives only yield amylene under the influence of strong reagents, such as chloride of zinc, while hydrate of amylene and its derivates furnish amylene on the smallest provocation. The hydrate itself breaks up into amylene and water when simply heated; the acetate splits into amylene and acetic acid when it is heated. The hydriodate breaks up under the influence of ammonia. With regard to the constitution of the pseudo alcohol, the author states that when naming it hydrate of amylene, he did not mean to vey the impression that he regarded it as a binary compound of water and amylene, according to the dualistic theory. The real condition of things in the two alcohols he understands to be as follows. In true amylic alcohol five atoms of carbon (Wurtz uses the new atomic weights, Kolbe uses the old) are in direct relation or close connexion with eleven atoms of hydrogen. The twelfth unit of affinity necessary to saturate & is furnished by the diatomic oxygen, which is in connexion with the last atom of hydrogen. The formula HH or 5 H 11 } con Brixton, Surrey, "Improvements in the manufacture of Middlesex, "Improvements in the manufacture of syrups." 2666. David Laidlaw and James Robertson, Glasgow, Lanarkshire, N.B., "Improvements in exhausting, forcing, compressing, heating, cooling, and applying aeriform bodies, and in apparatus therefor." 2668. John Charlton and Henry Charlton, Strangeways, Lancashire, and John Osborn Christian, F.C.S., Manexpress these relations perfectly. Now, in the hydrate of chester, Lancashire, "Certain improvements in sizing, |
