CHAPTER III. Buddha as a moral and re

But the allegory, if any, fades away from the narrative of the career of Buddha as a great teacher. ligious teacher. Indeed from this point the life of Sákya Muni involves a strange enigma. His religion for the masses is intelligible to all; but his discipline for the wise involves a conception which is inexplicable. It is easy to conceive of a young prince, surfeited with pleasure, devoting himself to a career of a religious reformer. It is also easy to conceive the motives which induced the reformer to take the vows of celibacy and poverty, and to require his immediate disciples to follow his example. But it seems incredible that such an enthusiastic philanthropist should have formed the conception of Nirvána; and should have positively yearned for a state of perfect abstraction from all existence, amounting not merely to an abnegation of self, but to actual annihilation. It also seems equally incredible that he should have propounded out of his individual consciousness such an artificial system of metaphysical religion, as that which is involved in the modern form of Buddhism, and enforced in the legend of his own life. Accordingly the suspicion arises that the conception of Nirvána, and the metaphysical dogmas of Buddhism, may possibly be mere modern developments of the ancient morality which was taught by Sákya Muni, and that Buddhism was originally a pure and simple faith, which has been strangely perverted by the monastic teachers of a later age.

the Brahmanical legend of Krishna; although the two narratives illustrate two different currents of religious thought. Krishna, like Sákya Muni, devoted his early life to amorous pursuits, but he pursued his career of sensuality to the end of his days. Again, instead of becoming a moral teacher, he was elevated to the rank of deity. His history and worship will be brought under review hereafter.

the terms Nir

dha.

These questions will be further illustrated here- CHAPTER III. after, when the Greek accounts of ancient India Significance of have been brought under review, and it becomes and Budnecessary to deal with the history of Buddhist India.51 Meantime it may be as well to inquire into the real significance of the terms Nirvána and Buddha, and to ascertain how far they were likely to be associated in the life and teaching of Gótama. It is certain that the two conceptions indicate two important stages in his religious career. First, there is the selfish longing to lead a life of religious mendicancy for the sake of entering Nirvána. Secondly, there is the benevolent longing to become a Buddha in order to teach mankind how to attain Nirvána.

tween the two

There must always have been a strange conflict Antagonism bebetween these two forms of religious thought, and it conceptions, is difficult to conceive how they could ever have intermingled in the same channel. The selfish longing to attain Nirvána induced men to sever every tie of affection in order that they might lead a life of contemplation without duties, and consequently without cares. The measures taken by Gótama to attain Nirvána were those, not of an apostle of benevolence, but of a cold-hearted voluptuary. He may have been surfeited with pleasure. He may have acquired a distaste for existence. He may have been oppressed by a religious melancholy bordering on mania. But whatever may have been the cause, he evidently violated every duty of the affections in order to carry out the wild vagary which had taken possession of his soul. In other

1 See infra, chap. v.

CHAPTER III. words, he sacrificed the happiness of his parents, his wife, and his infant son in order to lead a life of seeming independence as a wandering mendicant in the garb of religion. His subsequent training under Brahmanical auspices calls for no special remark. Like many enthusiasts, he had fondly imagined that religious instruction, observances, and contemplation would supply every spiritual need; and in due course he discovered that Brahmanism with its metaphysical speculations was as unsubstantial as chaff or wind.

Conflict of selfishness and be

nevolence.

Gotama, a teacher of loving kindness.

The benevolent longing to become a Buddha was an inspiration of a very different character. According to the monastic story, out of the strong love which Gótama bore to all animated beings, he desired to become Buddha, in order that he might deliver the human race from the miseries of successive transmigrations. But such a sentiment of universal benevolence is not only strained and artificial, but directly opposed to the monastic discipline which was supposed to purify the soul by cleansing it of all affections and desires. Again, the longing to enter Nirvána was simply a selfish dream; and the longing to become a Buddha must surely have been something more than a sentimental desire to communicate this selfish dream to the world at large.

The transformation of Gótama into Buddha was preceded by a significant incident. A young woman had mistaken him for a god, and presented him with an offering of thanksgiving in return for having become a happy wife and mother.52

52 Bigandet, page 71 et seq.; Hardy's Manual, page 166.

This episode belongs entirely to the world of CHAPTER III. humanity. It touched the heart of Gótama. It awakened the dormant affections which really formed a part of his nature, but had been stifled by sensual indulgences and metaphysical speculation. That a religious mendicant could be moved by such an incident to preach a cold and selfish creed, like that of Nirvána, to the world at large, is beyond all credibility. The plain truth appears to be that Gótama became Buddha in order to teach Dharma, or the religion of duty and loving-kindness, which would promote the happiness of the whole human race both in this life and the next. This, indeed, would have been true and universal benevolence; and the story of the grateful wife and mother would form the natural prelude to such religious teaching. The monastic biographer seems to have accepted the incident, but converted the benevolence which sought to make humanity happier into a benevolence which sought to annihilate humanity altogether. 53

53 The primitive religion of Gótama Buddha appears to have taught that every relation in life has its corresponding duty; and that every fulfilment of duty is a merit, and every deviation from duty a demerit; and that according to the balance of such merits and demerits, so the individual soul would be rewarded or punished in a future life. To teach such a religion might properly be regarded as true benevolence. When, however, monasticism sought to escape from all transmigrations, and consequently from all future states of reward or punishment, the benevolence was converted into the desire to convert mankind into monks. See infra, chap. v.

Under this view the antagonism between Nirvána and Buddha becomes more palpable. Nirvána involves the law of deliverance from existence; Buddha involves the duties of existence. Nirvana involves the idea that men should separate themselves from parents, wives, children, and dependents, and devote their whole lives to celibacy, mendicancy, and abstract contemplation. Buddha involves the idea that every relation in life has its corresponding duty; that servants have duties to fulfil towards masters, and masters towards servants; that parents have duties to fulfil towards children, and children towards parents; that kinsfolk and neighbours have duties to fulfil towards each other; that the laity have duties to fulfil towards religious teachers such as priests and monks; and

CHAPTER III.

Demarcation between priest and laymau.

There is thus a broad line of demarcation between the abstracted monk who seeks to obtain Nirvána by discipline, and the pious but worldly layman who seeks to obtain happiness by religion. This line is perpetually slurred over in ancient and modern Buddhism, and yet it finds general expression throughout the Buddhist world. The monks scarcely appear to interfere with the religion of the masses. They teach the boys in the monastery schools, but that is in accordance with their discipline. Occasionally they appear to preach, but it is only to recite certain precepts and observances, or certain passages from the life of Buddha, in a kind of chorus. So too the laity have little to do with the monks, unless they themselves enter the monastery. They are ever ready with their alms of food and clothing, and ever ready to pay visits of respect and reverence, but this is only a part of their religion. Still on all occasions there is a genuine and kindly veneration displayed towards the monk, which is rarely exhibited by the people of India towards the arrogant and exclusive Bráhman.

that humanity itself has certain duties to fulfil towards the whole range of animated beings.