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century, and the basilica of St. Sophia at Constantinople, exhibited the earliest specimens of glass-glazed windows. They were composed, not of panes like those now employed, but of little round pieces, known as "cives," fitted into grooves in wooden frames, and kept there in their place by plaster. In the twelfth century, painting on glass was invented. The first stained-glass windows were put up, in 1140, in the abbey of St. Denis. It was not till the fourteenth century that private dwellings were lighted by little square panes mounted in lead, such as we still see in the humblest habitations of our ancient towns. Thanks to Colbert, under Louis the Fourteenth, glass-houses were established in France which succeeded in manufacturing entire panes of respectable dimensions, but their employment was far from general.

The manufacture of glass for windows, in England, dates as far back as the seventh century. Its value in the sixteenth century may be judged from an order given by the Duke of Northumberland's steward, in 1567. "And because, during high winds, the glass windows in this castle and in other castles belonging to my lord duke got injured and broken, it is advisable that the glass frames in every window should be taken down and put in a place of safety when his grace departs. And if, at And if, at any time, his grace or others come to sojourn at any one of the said castles, they can be replaced without much expense; whereas, at present, the damage done is considerable, and the cost of repairs exceedingly heavy." Glass panes can hardly be said to have come into general use before the close of the eighteenth century. fact, during that century, in French provincial towns, and even in Paris, there flourished a corporation of artificers, called "chassissiers," whose occupation consisted in fitting up windows with oiled paper in the place of glass.

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Jules Magny, the clever writer of the Histoire d'un Morceau de Verre, which supplies the basis of this paper, in giving the genealogy of his "Bit of Glass," points out to his unscientific readers the difference between the mixture and the combination of minerals. You may grind sulphur and iron filings to the finest powder, and after mixing them together mechanically as thoroughly and in whatever proportions you please, you can always separate one from the other, provided that both of them are dry. But if you heat the mixture in a

crucible, to the temperature of a good blacksmith's forge, you get a combination of those substances. You may reduce the mass to an impalpable powder, but you will obtain neither a particle of sulphur nor a particle of iron. Chemistry demonstrates that in the smallest atom of the new substance produced, there exist both sulphur and iron. The two ingredients are intimately united, combined as chemists say.

The elements which enter into the composition of the subject of glass, are silex or flint, soda, potash, lime, clay or its metallic basis, and minium or red lead, the matter which colours house-painters' priming. They are mixed together in the crucible of the glass-house, and then combined or melted by the aid of fire. The temperature (in all cases high) at which fusion is attained, varies with the kind of glass and the ingredients of which it is composed. Window-glass is made of flint, soda, and lime; bottle-glass of flint and iron (in the shape of ferrugineous sand), soda, lime, and clay; crown-glass of flint, potash, and lime; and so on for other kinds of glass. The greater the number of bases used in the composition, the more easily they are melted into glass. Hence, for cheap glasses, such as bottle-glass, the manufacturer mixes as many different elements as possible, in order to obtain his result at the least possible expenditure of fuel. Nevertheless, as often happens, what is gained in one way is lost in another; for the greater the fusibility of the glass, the more it is liable to decomposition by atmospheric and other influences.

This decomposition is evidenced by curious and even beautiful phenomena. Old window-glass, and especially stable window-glass, manifests incipient decay by the iridescent tints which cover its surface. Bottles that have long been buried in the earth or submerged in ponds become most striking and ornamental specimens, from the gorgeous hues which they display; their transparence is gone, and they are coated with small scales shining with metallic lustre. By exposure to great heat and gradual cooling, glass also becomes unvitrified and opaque, presenting a great resemblance to crockery, and named, after its discoverer, Réaumur's porcelain. The opacity results from the formation of microscopic crystals of one of the earthy silicates which constitute glass, in consequence of the volatilisation of the alkaline ingredient. Such porcelain is in

request for decorative purposes; nor is this the only way in which the decomposition of the original compound has been turned

to account.

Glass, the undoubted offspring of Fire, without whose agency it could have no existence, has been employed, with some success, to defy its parent and hold him in check. Two conditions are necessary to cause paper, linen, canvas, muslin, wood, and other combustible matters to blaze, that is, to burn with the emission of flame, which flame is the means by which fire spreads the most rapidly and makes the most destructive havoc. Those conditions are the presence of heat and the access of air. Intense heat alone does not suffice to cause textile or woody substances to burn with a flame; they must also be in contact with air, or with the oxygen, which is the active portion of the air. Without this second condition they are slowly carbonised, never bursting into flame, although they become red hot. It is in this way that wood is converted into charcoal, in air-tight cylinders, for the manufacture of gunpowder.

Consequently, wood or articles of clothing are rendered incombustible simply by covering them with a layer of some substance which keeps them from all contact with air during their exposure to fire. This substance, Fuchs's soluble glass, was discovered under the following circum

stances.

In 1780, after a recent importation of Bohemian glass, two French glass-houses set to work to imitate the article. One of them employed a mixture of silex and potash in equal quantities; the other, a mixture, also in equal quantities, of silex, potash, and lime. But while the glass made by the latter establishment, which was situated in the Vosges, perfectly resisted the action of the atmosphere, that produced by the former, in Champagne, was not only deficient in clearness and solidity, but attracted atmospheric moisture to such a degree that the hollow feet of drinking-glasses in the shops became filled with a solution of carbonate of potash. A soluble glass was therefore obtained by employing only sand and potash in its composition.

M. Fuchs, who doubtless heard of this curious fact, thought of turning it to a useful purpose, although apparently it was capable of none. By modifying its composition to the following proportionssilex 69.88 plus potash 30.12, making to

gether one hundred parts-he obtained a glass soluble in cold water, which solution, applied to textile fabrics or wood, has the property of rendering them incombustible. The evaporation of the water leaves on their surface a thin stratum of matter fusible by heat, which deprives the subjacent tissues of the air necessary for their combustion.

Soluble glass is now obtained by melting in a crucible a mixture of fifteen parts of quartz reduced to a fine powder, ten parts of carbonate of potash, and one part of pulverised charcoal. For use, it is broken up into little bits, and then dissolved in boiling water, till the solution has the consistency of syrup. It is somewhat muddy, and has an alkaline taste. Nevertheless, it must be very pure not to effloresce under the action of the air after a certain lapse of time. A good plan is to cover the articles to be protected with several coats of the soluble glass, beginning with a weak solution, to be followed by a more concentrated liquid. Its efficacy is also increased by mixing with it some other incombustible substance, powdered clay for instance.

Of all known substances, soluble glass is the best preservative of tissues from flame, without injury to their quality. Still, as the alkali might prove destructive to colours like Prussian blue, theatrical scenery, after being rendered incombustible, should receive a coat of alum, and when that is dry, another of chalk. Theatres, however, make but little use of this means of security. Their proprietors and managers seem to consider destruction by fire as the natural death of every playhouse. Actresses and dancers are more excusable. Treatment with soluble glass does certainly render dresses at first stiff, and afterwards moist and limp; and coquetry will run the risk of being burnt alive, rather than sacrifice appearances. A volume might be filled with the consequences of a spark or a gas-flame carried aside by a draught of air on the stage or among the scenes of a theatre.

A much more popular application of glass is its conversion into spectacles; respecting which we only recommend the re-perusal of the Vicar of Wakefield, as a warning not to buy a gross of green ones. All coloured glasses fatigue the eye, whether green or blue, through the monotonous hue with which they invest every object. In no way does monotony agree with the human subject; variety and change are as necessary to his eyes as

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to his stomach. Everybody knows that nobody on earth can constantly live on the same sort of food; toujours perdrix, salmon served to 'prentices five times a week, an unlimited glut of confectioners' tarts and lollipops, potted sprats at every meal, Swiss honey ditto, are sure to create disgust in the end. Our eyes have identical need of change; blue and green spectacles soon become wearisome. Their intended object can only be answered by glasses simply and slightly blackened. They allow things to retain their natural hues, producing only the effect of a cloudy day or incipient twilight.

PHILIP ASTLEY.

MORE than a century ago, when gallant General Elliott, afterwards famous as Baron Heathfield and Gibraltar, returned from the expedition against the coast of France to raise and discipline his regiment of light horse, there joined his standard a youth of seventeen or so, one Philip Astley, whose soldierly bearing, strict regard for discipline, and skill as a horseman, soon won for him the favourable notice of his commander. He was appointed one of the rough-riders and teacher and breaker to the regiment. Born at Newcastle-underLyne, in 1742, he had been brought up to his father's business of veneer-cutting and cabinet-making. Of education of any other kind he had little or none.

Elliot's Light Horse was known as the Tailors' Regiment, from an odd belief that, for unascertained reasons, the professors of the sartorial art had joined its ranks in great numbers. But, tailors or not, the corps saw active service and earned great distinction. At the close of the German war the regiment was reviewed by George the Third, who, in recognition of its admirable conduct in the field, directed that thenceforward it should be known as the King's Royal Regiment of Light Dragoons.

Young Philip Astley had been promoted to the rank of sergeant-major. He now solicited and obtained his discharge. General Elliott, loth to part with him, bestowed upon him a most honourable certificate of service. This document set forth the exploits of the young soldier. Whilst the horses of the regiment were landing from flat-bottomed boats, one of the animals in its alarm had leaped into the sea, and was in danger of being carried away by the

tide. Astley immediately plunged in after it, and catching the bridle, swam to shore with the horse in safety before the boat arrived from which it had escaped. Again, at the disembarkation of the troops at the mouth of the Weser, he was the chief means of saving several men and horses when the boat bearing them had accidentally overturned. At the battle of Emsdorff' he took a French standard, and had his horse shot under him; but, mounting another charger, he bore off his prize, in spite of the efforts of an escort of the enemy's infantry, at least ten in number, by whom he was wounded. At the battle of Friedburg he led the advanced guard, and personally assisted, under a very heavy fire, in bringing away the hereditary Prince of Brunswick, who was lying wounded within the enemy's lines. In addition to this certificate, Elliott generously presented his trooper with a fine charger, which, as the Spanish Horse, afterwards made the acquaintance and secured the applause of a very large public.

Astley had not quitted the army without planning out his future career. He had resolved to turn to account his skill as a horseman and his knowledge of horses. What are now known as 66 equestrian performances" were then in a very immature condition. Still exhibitions of this kind were to be seen occasionally in the suburbs of London, and, notably, at a place of entertainment, long since departed, called the Jubilee Gardens, "at the sign of the Three Hats, near the turnpike, at Islington." Here performers known as "Price, Johnson, and old Sampson," were wont to exhibit so-called "feats of horsemanship." These Astley had seen, and seeing had determined to rival and out-do. He cultivated an acquaintance with the three equestrians, and gleaned from them certain of the mysteries of their craft. Soon afterwards he commenced his course as a public exhibitor in an open field, "near Glover's Halfpenny Hatch at Lambeth." His means and appliances were certainly limited enough. He literally blew his own trumpet in the public streets, and distributed handbills soliciting patronage. His "stud" consisted at this time merely of his charger, the gift of his general, and a second horse purchased in Smithfield for five pounds. His receipts were not large, and, when not occupied with his new pursuits, he was content to increase his means by plying his old trade of cabinet-making.

Still he was gaining ground. He tra

versed the provinces, performed at the different fairs, and met with success. Gradually he put money in his purse. At length he resolved upon quitting the harassing life of an itinerant showman, and opening a fixed place of exhibition near London. He therefore hired a portion of a timber-yard at the Lambeth foot of Westminster Bridge, enclosed it with boarding, erected seats for the audience, and roofed them imperfectly with canvas. A rope defined the ring, which was canopied only by the skies. Sixpence was charged for admission to the better seats, and threepence for children and servants. In the year 1770, however, when the performances were perhaps of a more ambitious character, the prices were raised, and one shilling was the admission to the superior benches. The building was still little better than an open booth, for the summer of 1771 proving very wet, he was unable to perform during many weeks of his season. But he continued to introduce improvements for the greater comfort of his patrons, and also to strengthen his company, now adding feats of agility, tumbling, and vaulting to his own equestrian feats. In 1775, his prices were two shillings to the gallery or boxes, and one shilling to the "riding ground," or pit. It was now announced that the seats were all protected from the weather, and that "slight showers" would not prevent the performances.

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tion at his theatre in Lambeth. Accordingly in Passion Week, 1781, he ventured to announce two night performances. The experiment was thoroughly successful. Evening exhibitions at the Amphitheatre became firmly established. The entertainments he had formerly given in Piccadilly were now intermingled with the feats of the circus. One or two female performers appeared in the ring. "Master Astley," the son of the manager, rose into notice as an equestrian. A "beautiful zebra,' valued at four hundred guineas, was exhibited, and esteemed a great marvel. Balancing, the "Polander's tricks on chairs," the "Trampolin tricks," tumbling, and "slack-rope vaulting," also figured in the programme. "Clown to the above tricks by Mr. Miller." It was announced, moreover, that "Ladies and gentlemen are carefully instructed to manage the horse and ride with safety. Horses are broke in for all denominations. No persons to bring dogs."

But for some years Astley had been compelled to pay the penalty of success, and to encounter an opposition which was growing more and more powerful. As early as 1771, a clever equestrian, one Charles Hughes, described as "a fine stalwart fellow, who could have carried an ox away on his shoulders, and afterwards eaten him for supper," had enclosed a Ride, near Stangate-street, Blackfriars, calling it About this time fortune greatly favoured the British Horse Academy. The early him. He had lent his landlord, the timber advertisements of the rival managers are merchant, two hundred pounds, secured by certainly negligent in grammar and spellmortgage of the whole timber-yard and ing, but they are instructive as to the its contents. The mortgagor suddenly attractions submitted to the public. Astley disappeared. Astley foreclosing, obtained, had probably announced the speedy deby due process of law, absolute possession of parture of his troop for France. His rival the property, and disposed of the timber at proclaims: "Hughes has the honour to a valuation. Further, he chanced to pick inform the nobility, &c., that he has no inup at the foot of Westminster Bridge a tention of setting out every day to France valuable diamond ring. This, no one ap- for three following seasons, his ambition pearing to claim it, he sold for sixty pounds. being fully satisfied by the applause he has With the proceeds of these sales he was received from the foreign gentlemen who enabled to open, in 1779, a more completely come over the sea to see him. Clementina roofed edifice, which he called the Amphi- and Miss Huntley ride one, two, and three theatre Riding-House. Hitherto, his per- horses at full speed, and takes leaps surformances in Lambeth had been presented prising. A little lady, only eight years in the morning only. At night he had old, rides two horses at full speed by hergiven a miscellaneous entertainment at self without the assistance of any one to No. 22, Piccadilly. Here no circus was hold her on. Enough to put any one in possible, but he had exhibited Les Ombres fits to see her!" Again: "Hughes, with Chinoises, feats of sleight-of-hand, a con- the celebrated Sobieska Clementina, the juring horse, comic dancing, imitations of famous Miss Huntley, and an astonishing birds, performing dogs, fireworks, &c. But young gentleman (son of a person of it seemed to him that the time had now quality), will exhibit at Blackfriars-road come for attempting a candle-light exhibi- | more extraordinary things than ever yet

witnessed, such as leaping over a horse forty times without stopping between springs. Leaps the bar standing on the saddle with his back to the horse's tail, and vice versa. Rides at full speed with his right foot on the saddle, and his left toe in his mouth. Two surprising feet. Mrs. Hughes takes a fly, and fires a pistol; rides at full speed standing on pint pots, mounts pot by pot, higher still, to the terror of all who see her! H. carries a lady at full speed over his head-surprising! The young gentleman will recite verses of his own making, and act Mark Antony between the leaps!"

and Astley were interdicted by the Surrey magistrates. But in 1782 the Blackfriars opposition assumed very formidable proportions. A permanent building, called the Royal Circus and Equestrian Philharmonic Academy-a very comprehensive title-was erected on a vacant plot of ground in Southwark, the site of the present Surrey Theatre. It was designed to present equestrian and dramatic entertainments of a new and improved character. The scheme was devised by Charles Dibdin, the famous sea-song writer, to whom is due the distinction of originat

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ing the equestrian drama.” Horseman

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proposed therefore that it should embrace all the dexterity and reputation of ancient chivalry, that tournaments, running at the ring, and other feats of equestrian celebrity, should be performed, and that a classical and elegant turn should be given to exercises of this description. I therefore proposed to have a stage, on which might be represented spectacles, each to terminate with a joust or a tilting match, or some grand object so managed as to form a novel and striking coup de théâtre, and that the business of the stage and the ring might be united." The Royal Circus was opened in November, 1782, but was closed again at Christmas. The Surrey magistrates refused to license the building, and the hope of obtaining the sanction of the Chamberlain for the performances was disappointed by the discovery that his lordship's powers did not then extend beyond the precincts of the Court or of the City of Westminster. During the Christmas holidays the magistrates attended the theatre in person to enforce their authority. A serious disturbance ensued. The Riot Act was read from the stage, the military were called in, and the audience promptly ejected from the building.

Here is a bill of Astley's: "This and ship," he writes in his Memoirs, was at every evening. Horsemanship by Mr. that time very much admired, and I conAstley, Mr. Taylor, Signor Markutchy, sidered that if I could divest it of its blackMiss Vangable, and other transcendent guardism"-(this is severe)-" it might be performers. This performance will be com-made an object of public consequence. I menced by a new minuet danced by two horses in a most extraordinary manner. A comical musical piece called the Awkward Recruit. The amazing exhibition of the dancing dogs from France and Italy, and other genteel parts of the globe, consisting of: 1. Two dogs as chairmen, carrying a monkey to a maskyrade. 2. Two dogs disputing poleticks. 3. A company of dogs carrying from a vineyard baskets of grapes, and accompanied by a Savoyard with a magic lanton. 4. A dog as a lady of quality in her equipage, attended by others in elegant liveries. 5. A dog cobbling. 6. A dog that walks on any two of his legs. 7. Two dogs as a tumbler and his attendant clown. 8. A dog dressed in a Spanish habbit, taking another little dog to a boarding school. With a variety of others, too numerous for insertion. This exhibition will conclude with a variety of dogs dressed in militaire beseeching a town. One of them represents a corporal returning with the colurs of the citadel in his mouth to his general. He halts on three legs, being supposed to have received a musket-ball in one of his four feet. Two bull-dogs. The English bull-dog, rather than quit his hold, suffers himself to be drawn thirty feet high, whilst the mashine is surrounded with fireworks, representing a heavy discharge of small arms and artillery. Tumbling and other unaccountable exercises by Signor Bellmott. To which will be added a new pantomime, called Harlequin Puzzle 'em."

This spirited competition was maintained for some time, albeit, during part of the summer of 1773, for some real or fancied irregularities, the exhibitions of both Hughes

The wrath of outraged law also fell upon Astley, who had been endeavouring, by increasing the attractions of his entertainment, to make head against the rival house. He also was without a license, but, with more courage than veracity, he announced that his theatre was under the special protection of a royal patent. Immediately after the closing of Hughes and Dibdin's Circus, however, Astley was committed to prison for performing illegally. He was

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