says: "Along the high roads I have caused fig-trees to be planted, that they may be for shade to animals and men. I have also planted mango-trees; and at every half-coss I have caused wells to be constructed, and resting-places for the night. And how many hostels have been erected by me at various places for the entertainment of man and beast." (J. A. S. B. VI. 604.) There are still remains of the fine avenues of Kublai and his successors in various parts of Northern China (see Williamson, I. 74).

CHAPTER XXIX.

CONCERNING THE RICE-WINE DRUNK BY THE PEOPLE OF CATHAY.

Most of the people of Cathay drink wine of the kind that I shall now describe. It is a liquor which they brew of rice with a quantity of excellent spice, in such fashion that it makes better drink than any other kind of wine; it is not only good, but clear and pleasing to the eye. And being very hot stuff, it makes one drunk sooner than any other

wine.

NOTE 1.-The mode of making Chinese rice-wine is described in Amyot's Memoires, V. 468 seqq. A kind of yeast is employed, with which is often mixed a flour prepared from fragrant herbs, almonds, pine-seeds, dried fruits, &c. Rubruquis says this liquor was not distinguishable, except by smell, from the best wine of Auxerre; a wine so famous in the Middle Ages, that the Historian Friar, Salimbene, went from Lyons to Auxerre on purpose to drink it.* Ysbrand Ides compares the rice-wine to Rhenish; John Bell to Canary; a modern traveller quoted by Davis, "in colour, and a little in taste, to Madeira."

Kington's Fred. II. II. 457. So, in a French play of the thirteenth century, a publican in his patois invites custom, with hot bread, hot herrings, and wine of Auxerre in plenty :

'Chaiens, fait bon diner chaiens,

Chi a caut pain et caus herens

Et vin d'Aucheurre à plain tonnel."

(Thé. Franc, au Moyen Age, 166.)

CHAPTER XXX.

CONCERNING THE BLACK STONES THAT ARE DUG IN CATHAY, AND ARE BURNT FOR FUEL.

It is a fact that all over the country of Cathay there is a kind of black stones existing in beds in the mountains, which they dig out and burn like firewood. If you supply the fire with them at night, and see that they are well kindled, you will find them still alight in the morning; and they make such capital fuel that no other is used throughout the country. It is true that they have plenty of wood also, but they do not burn it, because those stones burn better and cost less.'

[Moreover with that vast number of people, and the number of hot-baths that they maintain-for every one has such a bath at least 3 times a week, and in winter if possible every day, whilst every nobleman and man of wealth has a private bath for his own use-the wood would not suffice for the purpose.]

NOTE 1.-There is a great consumption of coal in Northern China, especially in the brick stoves, which are universal, even in poor houses. Coal seems to exist in every one of the 18 provinces of China, which in this respect is justly pronounced to be one of the most favoured countries in the world. Near the capital coal is mined at Yuen-minyuen, and in a variety of isolated deposits among the hills in the direction of the Kalgan road, and in the district round Siwanhwa-fu (Sindachu of Polo, ante p. 276). But the most important coal-fields in relation to the future are those of Shantung, Hunan, Honan, and The last is eminently the coal and iron province of China, and its coal-field, as described by Baron Richthofen, combines, in an extraordinary manner, all the advantages that can enhance the value of such a field except (at present) that of facile export; whilst the quantity available is so great that from Southern Shansi alone he estimates the whole world could be supplied, at the present rate of consumption, for several thousand years. "Adits, miles in length, could be driven within the body of the coal. . . . These extraordinary conditions . . . . will eventually give rise to some curious features in mining. if a railroad should ever be built from the plain to this region . . . branches

of it will be constructed within the body of one or other of these beds of anthracite." Baron Richthofen, in the paper which we quote from, indicates the revolution in the deposit of the world's wealth and power, to which such facts, combined with other characteristics of China, point as probable; a revolution so vast that its contemplation seems like that of a planetary catastrophe.

In the coal-fields of Hunan "the mines are chiefly opened where the rivers intersect the inclined strata of the coal-measures, and allow the coal-beds to be attacked by the miner immediately at their outcroppings."

At the highest point of the Great Kiang reached by Sarel and Blakiston they found mines on the cliffs over the river, from which the coal was sent down by long bamboo cables, the loaded baskets drawing up the empty ones.

In various parts of China, as in Chekiang, Szechwan, and at Peking, they form powdered coal, mixed with mud, into bricks, somewhat like our "patent fuel." This practice is noticed by Ibn Batuta, as well as the use of coal in making porcelain, though this he seems to have misunderstood. Rashiduddin also mentions the use of coal in China. It was in use, according to citations of Pauthier's, before the Christian era. It is a popular belief in China that every provincial capital is bound to be established over a coal-field, so as to have a provision in case of siege. It is said that during the British siege of Canton mines were opened to the north of the city.

(The Distribution of Coal in China, by Baron Richthofen, in Ocean Highways, N. S., I. 311; Macgowan in Ch. Repos. XIX. 385-7 ; Blakiston, 133, 265; Mid. Kingdom, I. 73, 78; Amyot, XI. 334; Cathay, 261, 478, 482; Notes by Rev. A. Williamson in J. N. Ch. Br. R.A.S., Dec. 1867; Hedde and Rondot, p. 63.)

Aeneas Sylvius relates as a miracle that took place before his eyes in Scotland, that poor and almost naked beggars, when stones were given them as alms at the church doors, went away quite delighted; for stones of that kind were imbued either with brimstone or with some oily matter, so that they could be burnt instead of wood, of which the country was destitute. (Quoted by Jos. Robertson, Statuta Eccles. Scotic. I. xciii.)

CHAPTER XXXI.

HOW THE GREAT KAAN CAUSES STORES OF CORN TO BE MADE, to HELP HIS PEOPLE WITHAL IN TIME OF DEARTH.

You must know that when the Emperor sees that corn is cheap and abundant, he buys up large quantities, and has

it stored in all his provinces in great granaries, where it is so well looked after that it will keep for three or four years.'

And this applies, let me tell you, to all kinds of corn, whether wheat, barley, millet, rice, panic, or what not, and when there is any scarcity of a particular kind of corn he causes that to be issued. And if the price of the corn is at one bezant the measure, he lets them have it at a bezant for four measures, or at whatever price will produce general cheapness; and every one can have food in this way. And by this providence of the Emperor's, his people can never suffer from dearth. He does the same over his whole Empire; causing these supplies to be stored everywhere according to calculation of the wants and necessities of the people.

NOTE 1.-" Le fait si bien estuier que il dure bien trois ans ou quatre" (Pauthier): "si bien estudier" (G. T.). The word may be estiver (It. stivare) to stow, but I half suspect it should be estuver in the sense of "kiln-dry," though both the Geog. Latin and the Crusca render it gubernare." Lecomte says: "Rice is always stored in the public granaries for three or four years in advance. It keeps long if care be taken to air it and stir it about; and although not so good to the taste or look as new rice, it is said to be more wholesome."

The Archbishop of Soltania (A.D. 1330) speaks of these stores: "The said Emperor is very pitiful and compassionate; . . . . and so when there is dearth in the land he openeth his garners, and giveth forth of his wheat and his rice for half what others are selling it at." Kublai Kaan's measures of this kind are recorded in the annals of the Dynasty as quoted by Pauthier. The same practice is ascribed to the sovereigns of the Tang Dynasty by the old Arab Relations. In later days a missionary gives in the Lettres Edifiantes an unfavourable account of the action of these public granaries, and of the rascality that occurred in connexion with them. (Lecomte, II. 101; Cathay, 240; Relat. I. 39; Let. Ed. XXIV. 76.

* Marsden observes incidentally (Hist. of Sumatra, 1st Edition, p. 71) that he was told in Bengal they used to kiln-dry the rice for exportation, "owing to which, or to some other process, it will continue good for several years."

CHAPTER XXXII.

OF THE CHARITY OF THE EMPEROR TO THE POOR.

I HAVE told you how the Great Kaan provides for the distribution of necessaries to his people in time of dearth, by making store in time of cheapness. Now I will tell you of his alms and great charity to the poor of his city of Cambaluc.

You see he causes selection to be made of a number of families in the city which are in a state of indigence, and of such families some may consist of six in the house, some of eight, some of ten, more or fewer in each as it may hap, but the whole number being very great. And each family he causes annually to be supplied with wheat and other corn sufficient for the whole year. And this he never fails to do every year. Moreover, all those who choose to go to the daily dole at the Court receive a great loaf apiece hot from the baking, and nobody is denied; for so the Lord hath ordered. And so some 30,000 people go for it every day from year's end to year's end. Now this is a great goodness in the Emperor to take pity of his poor people thus! And they benefit so much by it that they worship him as he were God.

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[He also provides the poor with clothes. For he lays a tithe upon all wool, silk, hemp, and the like from which clothing can be made; and he has these woven and laid in a building set apart for the purpose; and as all artizans are bound to give a day's labour weekly, in this way the Kaan has these stuffs made into clothing for those poor families, suitable for summer or winter according to the time of year. He also provides the clothing for his troops, and has woollens woven for them in every city, the material for which is furnished by the tithe aforesaid. You should know that the Tartars, before they were converted