PRONOMINALS.

236. There are certain common adjectives which partake of the nature of pronouns, and follow the declension of tat at 220.

These are, अन्य ‘other,' ‘another ;' इतर 'other' (cf. Latin iterum); अन्यतर 'one of two;' एकतर ‘one of two ' (ÉKárepos) ; एकतम ' one of many;' कतर ‘which of the two?' (wóτepos for Kóτepos); which of many?' that one of two;' ततम ‘that one of many ;' यतर 'who or which of two ;' यतम 'who or which of many.' The above are mostly formed by adding the comparative and superlative affixes to pronominal bases (196. a). They are declined like throughout, and make the N. Ac. neut. sing. in at.

237. There are others, however, which make am instead of at in the N. Ac. neuter. The model of these is sarva, all:' thus, Masc. N. सर्वस् sarvas, सर्वोौ sarvau, सर्वे sarve; Ac. सर्वं sarvam, सौ sarvau, सर्वान् sarván; I. सर्वेण, &c. ; D. सर्वस्मै, &c. ; Ab. सर्वस्मात्, &c. ; G. सर्वस्य sarvasya, सर्वयोस् sarvayos, सर्वेषां sarveshám ; L. सर्वस्मिन्, &c. Fem. N. ■ sarvá, ■ề sarve, ¤¤ sarvás, &c. (220). Neut. N. Ac. सर्वे sarvam, सर्वे sarve, सर्वाणि sarváni.

238. Like sarva are declined both' (no sing.); fall;' ĦĦ ‘half;' अधर ‘inferior ;' पर 'other;' अपर 'other ;' सवर 'posterior ;' उत्तर 'superior,' ‘north;’ दक्षिण ‘south,' right;’ पूर्व ‘east,' ‘prior;' एक ‘one;' अन्तर ‘other:’ but (with the exception of the first three) these may optionally follow siva, at 103, in the abl. loc. sing. masc. and neut., and the nom. pl. masc.; as, WMMM or अधरात्, &c.

239. fama 'second,'

'third,' may either follow sarva at 237, or siva at

103, and make their feminine in á.

240. अल्प ‘a few,' अर्द्ध ' half,' कतिपय 'how few ?' 'few,' प्रथम ‘first,’ generally follow siva at 103; but may make their nom. plur. in e; as, 'both' (ambo, upw), is declined only in the dual; i, i, suatą.

'few.' TH,

CHAPTER VI.

VERBS.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

241. ALTHOUGH the Sanskrit verb offers the most striking and interesting analogies to the Greek, nevertheless so peculiar and artificial is the process by which it is formed, that it would be impossible, in treating of it, to adopt an arrangement which would be likely to fall in with the preconceived notions of the classical student.

There are ten tenses. Seven of them are of common occurrence; viz. 1. the present, 2. the potential, 3. the imperative, 4. the first preterite, 5. the second preterite, 6. the first future, 7. the second future. Three are of rare occurrence; viz. 8. the third preterite, 9. the benedictive, 10. the conditional. There is also an infinitive mood, and several participles. Of these tenses, the present, the three preterites, and the two futures, belong properly to the indicative mood; and the imperative, potential, benedictive, and conditional, are more properly moods than tenses. Since, however, these latter moods do not comprehend other tenses under them, but are susceptible of all times, present, past, and future, it can lead to no embarrassment to consider them as tenses, and to arrange them indiscriminately with the tenses of the indicative.

Four of the

tenses, viz. the present, potential, imperative, and first preterite, are called conjugational tenses, and are placed first in order, because to them alone (as will be hereafter explained at 248) the rules of conjugation have reference.

242. Although the three preterites are used without much distinction, yet it should be observed, that they properly express different degrees of past time. The first preterite corresponds in form to the imperfect of Greek and Latin verbs, and properly has reference to an event doing at some time past, and not ended: it is often, however, used like the Greek aorist. The second preterite is said to have reference to an event done and past at some definite period: it answers in form to the Greek perfect, but may also be used like the aorist. The third preterite refers to an event done and past at some indefinite period: it corresponds in form and sense to the Greek 1st and 2d aorist *. So also, the two futures properly express, the first definite, the second indefinite futurity: the second, however, is the most used, and answers to the Greek future. The potential may generally be rendered in English by some one of the auxiliaries, may,' ‘can,' 'would,'' should, 'ought.' The conditional is used after the conjunction yadi, 'if' it occurs, however, but very rarely, and the potential usually supplies its place in conditional sentences. The benedictive or precative is a tense sometimes used in praying and blessing. There is no pluperfect in Sanskrit: the sense of this tense is expressed by the indeclinable participle or by the locative absolute; as, tasminn apakránte, ' after he had departed.' See Syntax.

*The fact is, that neither one of the three perfects is very commonly used to represent the completeness of an action. This is generally done by employing the passive participle with an instr. case; or by adding vat to the pass. part., and combining it with the present tense of as, 'to be;' as, uktaván asmi, 'I have said.' See Syntax.

The infinitive mood generally has an active, but is capable of a passive signification.

243. Every tense has three numbers, singular, dual, and plural.

To each tense belong two sets of terminations; one for the active or transitive voice, the other for the reflexive voice. The former of these voices is called by Indian grammarians Parasmaipada (words for another'), because the action is supposed to pass parasmai, 'to another; the latter is called Atmane-pada ('words for oneself'), because the action is supposed to revert átmane, 'to oneself.' This distinction, however, is rarely observed, and we find verbs, transitive or intransitive, conjugated indifferently in the Parasmai-pada or Atmane-pada or both. Some verbs, however, are conjugated only in the Atmane, and are restricted to either a neuter or reflexive signification; or sometimes, when a verb takes both voices, the Atmane may yield its appropriate meaning, and give a sense directing the action in some way towards the agent *. Thus, dá, ❝ to give,' with the preposition á, 'to,' prefixed, when conjugated in the Atmane-pada, means to give to oneself,' 'to take;' the causal verb darśayati, 'he shows,' becomes in the Atmane darśayate, 'he shows himself,'' appears; the roots mud and ruch, meaning 'to be pleased,'' please oneself,' are confined to the Atmane; and yách, 'to ask,' although possessing both voices, is more commonly used in the reflexive, the act of asking generally tending to the advantage of the asker.

6

a. Passive verbs are invariably conjugated in the Atmane-pada. Indeed, in all the tenses, excepting the first four, the passive is generally undistinguishable from the Atmane-pada of the primitive verb. But in the present, potential, imperative, and first preterite (unlike the Greek, which exhibits a perfect identity between the middle and passive voices in those tenses), the Sanskrit passive, although still employing the Atmane-pada terminations, has a special

* In Sanskrit grammar, the term voice has reference to the scheme of terminations; so that there are only two voices in Sanskrit, and they are used indiscriminately. Although the Atmane-pada, in a few instances, has a middle sense, yet it cannot be said to correspond entirely with the Greek middle voice, the characteristic of which is that it takes a middle inflection, partly active, partly passive. The passive is a distinct derivative from the root, using the Atmane terminations.

structure of its own, common to all verbs, and distinct from the conjugational form of the Atmane-pada. Thus the Greek aκouw makes for both the middle and passive of those four tenses, 1st sing. ἀκούομαι, ἀκουοίμην, ἀκούου, ἠκουόμην. But the Sanskrit sru, “ to hear,' makes for the conjugational form of the Atmane, à, quia, शृणवै, अशृषि; while for the passive it is श्रूये, श्रूयेय, श्रूयै, अश्रूये. Compare 253, and see Bopp's Comparative Grammar, Eastwick, 426, 733

244. As in nouns the formation of an inflective base out of a root precedes the subject of declension, the root requiring some change or addition before the case-terminations can be affixed; so in verbs the formation of a verbal base out of a root must be antecedent to conjugation. Again, as in nouns every case has its own termination, so in verbs each of the three persons, in the three numbers of every tense, has a termination (one for the Parasmaipada, and one for the Atmane-pada) which is peculiarly its own. Moreover, as in nouns, so in verbs, some of the terminations may be combined with memorial letters, which serve to aid the memory, by indicating that where they occur peculiar changes are required in the root. Thus the three terminations which belong to the 1st, 2d, and 3d persons of the present tense, Parasmai-pada, respectively, are mi, si, ti; and these are combined with the letter P (thus, mi P, si P, ti P), to indicate that the roots of certain verbs must be modified in a particular way, before these terminations are affixed.

245. The annexed tables exhibit, 1st, the memorial scheme of terminations for Parasmai and Atmane-pada, in all the tenses (the four conjugational being placed first); and 2dly, the same scheme without the memorial letters. Since, however, a very large number of roots require changes in the terminations of some of the tenses, it will be convenient, in the second table, to indicate the conjugations in which these changes occur.