these nouns, as well as a root; as, for instance, λe and λeţiko of λésis and λeğikòs, and navi of navis; and they might have required the student to look for λέξις under λεξι, λέγω under λεγ, navis under navi, and navigo under nau. Further than this, they might have shewn that the base was the form used in the formation of compound words, as in λežikoypápos, naviger. But Greek and Latin are too uncertain in their construction to admit of such an analysis being completely carried out.

78. It will be perceived from the foregoing remarks that the consideration of Sanskrit nouns must divide itself into two heads: 1st, the formation of the base; 2dly, the inflection or declension of the base; that is, the adaptation of the base or modified root to a common scheme of case-terminations.

a. In fact, it will appear in the sequel, that the same system applies both to nouns and verbs. As in verbs (see 248) the formation of a verbal base from a root precedes the subject of verbal inflection or conjugation, so in nouns it is necessary to the clear elucidation of the subject that the method of forming the nominal base from the root should be explained antecedently to declension.

b. Indeed, it must be remembered that nouns, substantive and adjective, in Sanskrit are classified into separate declensions, according to the finals of their bases, not according to the finals of their cases; and it becomes essential to determine the form of the final syllable of the nominal base before the various declensions can be arranged.

79. The bases of nouns, substantive and adjective, are formed either by adding certain affixes to the root, the vowel of which is liable, at the same time, to be gunated or vriddhied (see 28. a); or by adding certain affixes to the bases of nouns already formed. When, however, the root itself is used as a noun, no affix is required, but the root is then also the base. Hence it follows that the final syllable of nominal bases will end in almost any letter of the alphabet. Those bases, however, that end in vowels may be conveniently separated under four classes, each class containing masc., fem., and neuter nouns; the 1st ending ina,

á, and

í; the 2d in i; the 3d in u; and the 4th in ri. Those that end in consonants may also be arranged under four classes; the Ist, 2d, and 3d, ending in at ord, n, s, respectively (compare 44); and the 4th comprising all other final consonants.

a. It will be afterwards shewn, that the first class of nouns, comprising bases in a, á, and í, is by far the most numerous and important. See 109.

Bearing in mind, therefore, that Sanskrit declension consists in building up a system of cases on a base, by attaching the caseterminations to that base-bearing in mind, moreover, that the whole distinction of declensions depends on the distribution of the bases of nouns under eight classes, according to their final syllables—we are now to explain more precisely, under each of these classes, the method of forming the nominal inflective base by regular derivation from the root.

Observe-It is not intended that the student should dwell long on the following pages printed in small type. He is recommended to read them over rapidly, and to note carefully the final letters of the base under each of the eight classes.

Observe, moreover, that although all the bases of Sanskrit nouns, without exception, are derived from roots, there are many in which the connection between the noun and its source, either in sense or form, is not very obvious*. The following rules have reference only to those bases whose formation proceeds on clear and intelligible principles.

FORMATION OF THE BASE OR CRUDE FORM OF NOUNS.

80. FIRST CLASS.-Comprising Masculine and Neuter bases in a; Feminine in á and §í.

Formed by adding to ROOTS

I. a, forming, 1st (nom. -as), after Vṛiddhi of medial a of a root, and Guņa of any other vowel, a large class of masculine substantives; as, from the root div, 'to sport,' deva, a deity.' If a root ends in ch or j, these letters are changed to k and g respectively; as, from pach, 'to cook,' páka, 'cooking;' from yuj, 'to join,' yoga, 'joining.' See 43. d.

II.a, forming, 2dly (nom. masc. -as, fem. -á, neut. -am), after Guna of a final, and sometimes Guna of a medial vowel, nouns of agency and adjectives; as, from plu, to swim,' plava, 'what swims;' from srip, 'to creep,' sarpa, 'what creeps.' See 580. Adjectives of this form generally occur at the end of compounds; as, arin-dama, 'foe-taming;' bhayan--kara, fear-causing.' Compare corresponding formations in Greek and Latin; as, izzó-daμos, veri-dicus, grandiloquus, omni-vorus, &c. Whene and dus are prefixed to these adjectives,

*Thus purusha, a man,' is said to come from pur, 'to precede;' srigála, ‘a jackal,' from srij, 'to create.'

they are susceptible of a passive sense, both in Sanskrit and Greek; as, easy to be done;' hard to be done,' &c. Similarly, expopos, dispopos,

δύςτομος, &c.

dri, 'to respect:'

III.a, forming, 3dly (nom. -as, -á, -am), adjectives; as, from subh, 'to shine,' subha, 'beautiful.' Sometimes there is great change of the root; as in siva, 'propitious,' from sí, 'to sleep;' sundara, 'beautiful,' from and sometimes the feminine may be formed in í; as, sundarí. adjectives formed with this affix.

There are very few

IV. aka (nom. -akas, -aká or -iká, -akam), after Vṛiddhi of a final vowel or medial a, and Guna of any other vowel. Still more common than a to form adjectives and nouns of agency (see 582. b); as, from tap, ‘to burn,' tápaka, ‘inflammatory;' from kṛi, ‘to do,' káraka, 'a doer.' Observe, -aká is generally taken for the feminine of the adjectives, and -iká for the feminine of the agents; as, tápaká, káriká. Compare Greek forms like púλakos.

V. ana (nom. -anam), after Guna of the root, forming, 1st, a large class of neuter substantives; as, from ní, 'to guide,' nayana, ‘the eye,' ' guidance;' from dá, 'to give,' dána, ‘a gift;' from drip, to make proud,' darpaṇa, ‘a mirror.' Compare analogous Greek formations in avo; as, ὄργανον, δρέπανον, &c.

ana, forming, 2dly (nom. -anas, -aná, -anam), nouns of agency (see 582. c) and adjectives; as, from nṛit, 'to dance,' nartana, a dancer;' from subh, 'to shine,' sobhana, ‘bright.' Compare Greek forms like ikavós, &c. The feminine of the agents is sometimes in -aní.

VI. na. A few abstract nouns are formed with na; as, yajna, sacrifice,' from yaj; yatna, ‘effort,' from yat; swapna, 'sleep,' from swap. Compare vævos, somnus. VII. tra (nom. -tram), after Guna of the root; as, from pá, 'to drink,' pátra, a vessel;' from śru, to hear,' śrotra, the organ of hearing.' This affix is used to form neuter nouns denoting some instrument or organ, and corresponds to the Latin trum in aratrum, plectrum, &c.; and the Greek Tрov, Opov in víπтpov, βάκτρον, βάθρον, &c.

VIII. There are other uncommon affixes to roots to form adjectives and a few substantives in a (nom. -as, -á, -am); as, Tra, la, W ala, ara, vara, मर mara, इल ila, इर ira, उर ura, उल ula, म ma, व va, ā tra, आक áka, एर era, Tuka, úka, ka. The following are examples of nouns formed with these affixes: dípra, ‘shining' (compare Greek formations like λάμπ-pos, &c.; and Latin pu-rus, &c.); chandra,‘the moon;' śukla, 'white;' chapala, ‘fickle;' tarala, 'trembling' (compare Greek forms like Tpóx-aλos, τрáπ-eλos; and Latin tremulus, &c.); vațara, 'unsteady' (compare Greek forms like pávepos, &c.); jitwara, 'victorious;' ghasmara, 'voracious;' anila, 'wind;' pathila, ‘a traveller' (compare Latin forms like agilis, &c.); chhidira, ‘an axe;' bhidura, 'brittle;' harshula, ‘a lover;' bhíma, 'terrible;' gharma, m., ' heat;' yugma, n., a pair;' dhúma, m., 'smoke' (compare forms like Oú-μos, aveμ-05, fumus, animus, &c.); aśwa, m., horse' (equus); chitra, 'variegated;' jalpáka, 'talkative' (compare forms like loquacs, loquac, and pévaks for pévakos); patera, 'moving;' varshuka, ‘rainy;'

a

jágarúka, 'watchful' (added especially to frequentative or reduplicate forms; as, from vávad, to speak often;' vávadúka, loquacious'); śushka, 'dry' (from śush, to dry.' Compare Latin siccus).

Formed by adding to the bases of NOUNS―

IX. twa (nom. -twam), forming neuter abstract substantives from any noun in the language; as, from purusha, ‘a man,' purushatwa, ' manliness.' In adding this affix to bases ending in nasals, the nasal is rejected; as, from dhanin, ‘rich,’ dhanitwa, the state of being rich.' (See 57.)

X. ya, forming, 1st (nom. -yam), neuter abstract substantives aud a few collectives, the first syllable of the noun taking Vriddhi; as, from suhrid, ‘a friend,' sauhridya, 'friendship.' When the base ends in a vowel, this vowel is rejected before ya is affixed; as, from vichitra, various,' vaichitrya, ́ variety.”

XI. ya, forming, 2dly (nom. -yas, -yá, -yam), adjectives expressing some relationship to the noun; as, from dhana, 'wealth,' dhanya, 'wealthy.' Sometimes Vriddhi takes place; as, from soma, 'the moon,' saumya, ‘lunar.' In this case the fem. is -yí. Compare Greek adjectives in 105, and Latin in ius.

XII. a (nom. -as, -í, -am), after Vriddhi of the first syllable of the noun, forming innumerable adjectives expressing some relationship to the noun. When the base ends in a, no further affix is required, and the only change is the Vṛiddhi of the first syllable; as, from purusha, ‘a man,' q paurusha, ‘manly;' from Vasishtha, Vásishtha, a descendant of Vasishtha.' When in á or i, this á or i must be rejected; as, from sikatá, ‘sand,' saikata, ‘sandy.' When in u, this u is gunated, and becomes av before this and the three following affixes; as, from Vishnu, 'the god Vishnu,' Vaishnava, a worshipper of Vishnu;' from dáru, 'wood,' dárava, 'wooden;' from manu, mánava, a descendant of Manu.' When the initial letter of a word is compounded with v or y, these latter are resolved into uv and

iy, which are vriddhied; as, सौवर sauvara, relating to sound,' from swara, a note;' vaiyághra, 'relating to a tiger,' from vyághra, 'a tiger.' ObserveThis applies to the two next affixes also.

Sometimes the neuter form of these adjectives is taken as an abstract substantive; thus, nominative case, paurusham, manliness;' śaiśavam, 'childhood,' from sisu, 'a child;' or, as a collective; thus, kshaitram, ‘fields,' collectively, from kshetra. Observe-This applies to the two next affixes also.

XIII. ika (nom. -ikas, -ikí, -ikam), after Vṛiddhi of the first syllable of the noun, forming numerous adjectives. Before this affix is added, the final vowel of the base must be rejected; as, from dharma, 'religion,' dhármika, ‘religious;' from venu, a flute,' vainavika, a flute-player;' from swas, to-morrow,' mafua śauvastika, 'relating to to-morrow.' Compare Latin forms like bellicus, nauticus, &c.; and Greek woλeμKós, &c.

XIV. Teya (nom. -eyas, -eyí, -eyam), after Vṛiddhi of the first syllable of the noun, forming many adjectives. The final vowel of the base must be rejected; as, from purusha, ‘a man,' paurusheya, manly;' from agni, ‘fire,' ágneya, ́ fiery.' Compare forms like Aeóvтelos, AeóvTeos; and Latin igneus, &c.

XV. § íya (nom. -íyas, -íyá, -íyam), without any change of the noun, except the rejection of final a; as, from parvata, ́ a mountain,' parvatíya, ́mountainous.' Sometimes there is Vriddhi; as, from sukha, 'pleasure,' saukhiya, 'pleasurable.' When the final of the base remains, k is prefixed to this and the last affix; as, from para, another,' parakiya, 'belonging to another.'

XVI. There are other uncommon affixes to nouns forming adjectives in a (nom. -as, -á, -am); such as ína, ina, vala, tana; forming, from gráma, ‘a village,' grámína, ‘rustic;' from ratha, a chariot' (Lat. rota), rathina, ‘having a chariot ;' from sikhá, ‘a crest,' sikhávala, 'crested;' from śwas, 'to-morrow,' śwastana, 'future.' This last answers to the Latin tinus, and has reference to time. Compare crastinus, &c.

XVII. ☎ ka (nom. -kas, -ká, -kam), added to words to form adjectives and collective nouns, or to express depreciation: thus, madhuka, 'sweet,' from madhu, 'honey;' aśwaka, ‘a hack,' from aśwa, 'a horse.' It is often redundant.

XVIII. Ħч maya (nom. -mayas, -mayí, -mayam), added to words to denote 'made of,' 'full of;' as, from loha, iron,' lohamaya, made of iron;' from tejas, light,' tejomaya, 'full of light.'

XIX.

tara (nom. -taras, -tará, -taram), ä tama (nom. -tamas, -tamá, -tamam), ishta (nom. -ishṭas, -ishṭá, -ishṭam), added to adjectives to express the degrees of comparison. See 191, 192.

XX. daghna (nom. -daghnas, -daghní, -daghnam), dwayasa (-dwayasas, -dwayasí, -dwayasam), and ATA mátra (-mátras, -matrí, -mátram), added to words to denote 'measure' or 'height;' as, jánu-daghnam jalam, 'water up to the knees.'

XXI. desiya (nom. -deśíyas, -deśíyá, -deśíyam) and a kalpa (nom. -kalpas, -kalpá, -kalpam), added to words to denote 'similitude,' but with some inferiority; as, kavi-kalpa or kavi-desiya, a sort of poet:' or denoting 'nearly,' about;' as, mṛita-kalpa, ‘nearly dead;' vinśati-varsha-deśíya, ' about twenty years of age.'

a. Observe-The affixes ta and ita (nom. -tas, -tá, -tam), forming innumerable passive participles-as, jita, 'conquered,' from ji, 'to conquer,' &c.—fall under the first class of bases. See 530.

b. So also many other participles formed with mána, ána, tavya, aníya, ya, &c. See 526, 527, 568.

c. ita is said to be added to nouns to form adjectives; as, phalita, fruitful,' from phala, fruit;' but these may be regarded as passive participles from nominal verbs. See 551.

By adding to ROOTS—

XXII. Tá (nom. -á), with no change of the root, forming feminine substantives; as, from jív, 'to live,' jíva, 'life;' from sprih, to desire,' I spṛihá, desire.' Compare Greek formations like pópa, púyn; and Latin fuga, &c. Occasionally there is Guna; as in lekhá, ‘a line,' from likh, 'to write;' jará, ‘old age,' from jri, 'to grow old.' This affix is frequently added to the desiderative form of a root; as, from pipás, to desire to drink,' pipásá, 'thirst;' and rarely