a. Especially in conditional sentences; as, यदि राजा दण्डं न प्रणयेत् स्वाम्यं कस्मिंश्चिन् न स्यात् सर्व्व, सेतवश्च भिद्येरन् ' if the king were not to inflict punishment, ownership would remain with nobody, and all barriers would be broken down.' Sometimes the conjunction is omitted; as, should it not be so ;' न स्यात् पराधीन: ‘were he not subject to another.’

881. The potential often occurs as a softened imperative, this language, in common with others in the East, being averse to the more abrupt form; thus, :, ‘ do thou go,’ for गच्छ ; and अद्यात् फलानि, ‘let him eat fruits,' for अन्तु.

882. IMPERATIVE.

This tense yields the usual force of 'com

mand' or 'entreaty;' as, faf 'take courage;'

' remember me.' , and not, must be used in prohibition; as, afe do not tell a falsehood; be not ashamed; see 889. The first person is used to express 'necessity,' see example at 796.

a. The 3d pers. singular is sometimes used interjectionally; thus, भवतु Be it so!' 'Well!' 'Let it go!' 'Come along!' 'Come!' 883. It is sometimes employed in conditional phrases to express contingency;' as, agarrife xi nepermit me, (and) I will go,' i. e. ' if you will permit me, I will go;' 14 ef gesi'if you command me, I will kill the villain;' f 'if you give me a promise of security, I will go.'

मे

884. FIRST PRETERITE.-Although this tense properly has reference to 'past incomplete action' (see 242), and has been so rendered in the examples given at pp. 198-267, yet it is most commonly used to denote 'indefinite past time,' without any necessary connexion with another action; as, अर्थं ग्रहीतुं यत्नम् अकरवं 'I made an effort to collect wealth,' not necessarily 'I was making.'

885. SECOND PRETERITE.—As observed at 242, this tense is properly used to express an action done at some definite period of past time; as, कौशल्यादयो नृपतिं दशरथं चक्रन्दुः ‘Kauśalyá and the others bewailed king Dasaratha.' It is frequently, however, employed indeterminately.

886. FIRST FUTURE. This tense expresses definite futurity;' as, तासु दिक्षु कामस्य फलं लभासि ' in those regions thou shalt obtain the fruit of thy desire; but is not so frequently found as the second future.

887. SECOND FUTURE. This tense, although properly indefinite, is employed to express all degrees and kinds of futurity,' immediate or remote, definite or indefinite ; as, स्वादु पयः पास्यसि 'thou shalt

drink sweet water;' तत्र अवश्यं पत्नों द्रक्ष्यति 'there certainly he will see his wife.'

a. It is sometimes used for the imperative; as,

देयं

ne greyfa तद्

This tense properly expresses time

"whatever is to be given, that you will give,' (do thou give.)

888. THIRD PRETERITE.

indefinitely past; as,

king; see 242.

there lived (in former times) a

889. It is also employed to supply the place of the imperative, after the prohibitive particle मा or मास्म, the augment being omitted; as, मा कृथाः 'do not make;' मा त्याक्षीः समयं ' do not lose the opportunity ;' मास्म अनृतं वादी: 'do not tell an untruth;' मा क्रुध : ' do not be angry ;' मा शुच: 'do not grieve ;' मा हिंसी: do not injure;' : 'be not afraid.’

890. BENEDICTIVE.—Only one example of this tense occurs in the Hitopadeśa: नित्यं भूयात् सकल सुख वसति: ' May he constantly be the abode of all happiness!” It is chiefly used in pronouncing benedictions. Also in imprecations.

a. In the latter case a noun formed with an affix ani is frequently used; thus, अजीवनिस् ते भूयात् 'May there be loss of life to thee !' ' Mayst thou perish !”

891. CONDITIONAL. This tense is even less frequent than the last. It is used in conditional propositions, as illustrated by the following example from Manu: यदि राजा दण्डं न प्रणयेत् तदा शूले मत्स्यान् इव अपक्ष्यन् दुर्बलान् बलवत्तराः ‘if the king were not to inflict punishment, then the stronger would roast the weak like fish on a spit;' or, according to the Scholiast, ffwould cause injury.'

SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES.

892. Participles in Sanskrit often discharge the functions of the tenses of verbs. They are constantly found occupying the place of past and future tenses, and more especially of passive verbs, insomuch that an instance of a passive in any other tense than the present or imperative rarely occurs.

893. Participles govern the cases of the verbs whence they are derived ; as, व्याधं पश्यन् ' seeing the fowler ;' अरण्ये चरन् ‘ walking in the forest ;' तत् कृतवान् 'he did that ;' शब्दम् आकर्ण्य ' having heard a noise ;' पानीयम् अपीत्वा गत: ' he went away without drinking water.'

a. In the case of passive participles, as will presently appear, the agent is put in the instrumental case; and the participle agrees with the object, like an adjective.

Present Participles.

894. These are not so commonly used in Sanskrit composition as past and future participles, but they are often idiomatically employed,

especially where in English the word 'while' or 'whilst' is introduced; thus, अहं दक्षिणारण्ये चरन्न् अपश्यं ' whilst walking in the southern forest, I beheld,' &c.

Past Passive Participle.

895. This most useful participle is constantly used to supply the place of a perfect tense passive, sometimes in conjunction with the auxiliary verbs as and bhú, to be; thus, fetsfæ I am commanded;' fafen: we are astonished' (compare 866). Of course the participle is made to agree adjectively with the object in gender, number, and case, as in Latin; and the agent, which in English would probably be in the nominative, and in Latin in the ablative, becomes in Sanskrit instrumental. Thus, in Sanskrit, the phrase 'I wrote a letter' would not be so idiomatically expressed by अहं पत्रं लिलेख, as by मया पत्रं लिखितं or मया पतं लिखितं आसीत् ' by me a letter was written,' 'a me epistola scripta. So again, f छिन्नानि ‘by him the bonds were cut' is more idiomatic than स बन्धनानि चिछेद ' he cut the bonds; and तेन उक्तं ' by him it was said' is more usual than he said *'

896. But frequently the past passive participle is used as an active past participle; in which case it may sometimes govern the accusative case, like a perfect tense active; thus, स वृक्षम् आरूढ: ‘he ascended the tree;' स गृहं गतः or आगढ़ः — he went home;' वर्त्म तीर्ण: 'having crossed the road;' अहं पदवीम् अवतीर्णौऽस्मि — I have descended to the road;' अहं नगरीम् अनुप्राप्तः 'I reached the city;' आवाम् seri fat a: 'we two have entered the hermitage.' But observe, that its active use is generally, though not invariably, restricted to verbs which involve the idea of 'motion,' and to a few neuter verbs. The following are other examples: पक्षिण उत्पतिताः ‘the birds flew away ;' स मृत: ' he died ;' व्याधो निवृत्त: ' the fowler returned ;' स भक्षयितुं प्रवृत्त: ' he proceeded to eat asleep;'f: 'they stood.'

;'

स प्रसुप्त: ‘he fell

a. Occasionally this participle is susceptible of a present signification; thus, स्थित 'stood' may sometimes be translated 'standing,' and a 'fearing.'

b. The neuter of the passive participle is sometimes used as a substantive; thus, दत्तं ‘a gift;’ खातं ‘an excavation;' अन्नं 'food;' दुग्धं 'milk.'

* This instrumental or passive construction, which is so prevalent in Sanskṛit, has been transferred from it to Hindí, Maráthí, Guzerátí, and other dialects of India. The particle ne in Hindi and Hindústání corresponds most clearly to the Sanskrit na, the final letter of the commonest termination for the instrumental case; and this particle can never occasion any difficulty if so regarded.

Active Past Participle.

897. This participle is much used (especially in modern Sanskrit and the writings of commentators) to supply the place of a perfect tense active. It may govern the case of the verb; as,

he heard every thing ;' पत्नी पतिम् चालिङ्गितवती 'the wife embraced her husband;' राज्ञो हस्ते फलं दत्तवान् ' he gave the fruit into the hand of This participle may also be to be,' to form a compound

the king;’' तत् कृतवती ' she did that.' used with the auxiliaries as and bhú,

perfect tense ; thus, तत् कृतवान् अस्ति ‘he has done that ;' तत् कृतवान् fqfhe will have done that.'

Indeclinable Past Participles.

898. The sparing use made in Sanskrit composition of relative pronouns, conjunctions, and connective particles, is mainly to be attributed to these participles, by means of which the sense of a clause may be suspended, and sentence after sentence strung together without the aid of a single copulative. They occur in narration more commonly than any other kind of participle; and some of the chief peculiarities of Sanskrit syntax are to be traced to the frequency of their occurrence.

899. They are generally used for the past tense, as united with a copulative conjunction, and are usually translatable by the English 'having,' 'when,'' after,' 'by,' see 555; thus, ci fafaną ca अयं कुकुर इति मत्वा छागं त्यक्त्वा खात्वा स्वगृहं ययौ 'having heard this, having thought to himself "this is certainly a dog," having abandoned the goat, having bathed, he went to his own house.' In all these cases we should use in English the past tense with a conjunction; thus, When he had heard this, he thought to himself that it must certainly be a dog. He then abandoned the goat, and, when he had bathed, went to his own house.'

a. It is evident from the above example that the indeclinable participles often stand in the place of a pluperfect tense, a tense which does not really exist in Sanskrit. b. But although they always refer to something past, it should be observed that they are frequently rendered in English by the present participle, as in the fifth sentence of the story at 930.

900. Another, though less frequent, use of them is as gerunds in do; thus, शास्त्राण्य् अधीत्य * भवन्ति पण्डिता: 'men become wise by reading the Sástras ;'

* As the Latin gerund is connected with the future participle in dus, so the Sanskrit indeclinable participle in ya is connected with the future passive participle in ya. Tt

भार्य्या अप्य् अकार्य्यशतं कृत्वा भर्त्तव्या 'a wife is to be supported even by doing a hundred wrong things;' få 'What bravery is there in killing a

sleeping man?'

901. The termination twá of this participle is probably the instrumental case of the same affix of which the infinitive termination (um) is the accusative; see 459. a. There can be little doubt that the indeclinable participle bears about it much of the character of an instrumental case. It is constantly found in grammatical connexion with the agent in this case; thus, सर्खेः पशुभिर् मिलित्वा सिंहो विज्ञম: ‘by all the beasts having met together the lion was informed;' सर्वैर् जालम् आदाय उड्डीयतां ‘by all having taken up the net let it be flown away.'

a. Another and perhaps stronger proof of its instrumental character is, that the particle, which always governs the instrumental case, is not unfrequently joined with the indeclinable participle; thus,,'enough of eating,' is with equal correctness of idiom expressed by ; see 918. a.

Future Passive Participles.

902. The usual sense yielded by this participle is that of 'fitness,' obligation,'' necessity' (see 568); and the usual construction required is, that the agent on whom the duty or necessity rests be in the instrumental case, and the participle agree with the object; as, त्वया प्रवृत्तिर् न विधेया ' by you the attempt is not to be made.'

a. Sometimes, however, the agent is in the genitive case; thus, fami भक्ष्यम् boiled rice is to be eaten by Bráhmans.' Compare 865, note.

903. Occasionally the future passive participle may yield a sense equivalent to worthy of,' 'deserving of;' thus, deserving a whipping;' 'worthy of being beaten ;' deserving death by pounding;' worthy of death.' 904. If the verb govern two accusatives, one may be retained after the future passive participle; as, नयनसलिलं त्वया शान्तिं नेयं 'the tear of the eye is to be brought to assuagement by thee.'

905. Occasionally the neuter of this participle is used impersonally; in which case it does not agree with the object, but may govern it in the manner of the verb; thus, मया ग्रामं गन्तव्यं, 'it is to be gone by me to the village, ' for मया ग्रामो गन्तव्यः. So also, by you it is to be entered into the assembly.' a. The neuter (from) is thus used, and, in accordance with 841, requires the instrumental after it, as well as before; thus, facut fenci 'by something it must become the cause,' i. e. 'there must be some cause;' स्वामिना सविशेषेण भवितव्यं '& ruler ought to be possessed of discrimination ;' मया तब अनुचरेण भवितव्यं 'I must become your companion.’

906. Similarly, the neuter of may be adverbially used, and impart at the same time a passive sense to the infinitive; thus, पवन: शक्यम् चालिङ्गितुम् अत्रैः for 47: &c. the breeze is able to be embraced by the limbs' (Sak. Act III). Again, शक्यम् अञ्जलिभिः पातुं वाता: 'the breezes are able to be drunk