of words*, under any circumstances: that is to say, they undergo modifications, even at the end of a sentence; and when they are combined with the initial letters of succeeding words, or with the initial consonants of affixes, these modifications must take place before rules 41 and 42 are applied. 1st, A conjunct consonant of any kind; 2d, an aspirated consonant; 3d, the aspirate h; 4th, the palatal lettersch, chh, j, jh (when originally palatal, and not the result of the euphonic changes of final ☎t and ₹d at 47); 5th, the sibilants πs and sh.

a. With regard to 1, when a word ends in a single or conjunct consonant, and a termination to be affixed consists of a single consonant, then, to avoid the concurrence of silent consonants at the end of a word, the first only of the conjunct consonants is allowed to remain, and the termination is dropped: thus +A charant+s leaves चरन् charan, 'going ;' अवेद् + स् aved+s leaves अवेत् avet or aved. So in Latin, mulsi is written for mulg-si; sparsi for sparg-si, &c.

b. With regard to 2, the unaspirated form is substituted for the aspirated.

c. With regard to 3, a final h (which is of very rare occurrence) is usually changed either to kort. See 17. a.

d. With regard to 4, palatals, as being derived from gutturals (see 20. c.), generally revert to their originals; i. e. finalch and jh are usually changed to (see 12), butchh may become t;j becomes g, but sometimes tor

d.

e. With regard to 5, final Ns and sh usually pass into either kort. (See 17. b.)

The above changes must hold good, whatever may be the initial letter of a following word; but rules 41 and 42 must be afterwards applied. They also hold good before all terminations or affixes beginning with strong consonants; but before vowels (except the affix a at 8o. I.) and weak consonants (i. e. nasals and semivowels) the finals remain unchanged. See 41. b, and vách at 176.

44. The special rules for the changes of consonants are very numerous, but since few words in Sanskrit end in any other consonants thant and d, the nasals and m, the dental sibilants, and the semivowel r, it will be sufficient for all practical purposes to notice these special rules under four heads; Ist, the changes of final and; 2dly, the changes of the nasals; त्

3dly, the changes of final ; 4thly, the changes of final र्.

CHANGES OF FINAL t AND ट् d.

45. By the general rule (41), final t becomes d before soft consonants, and before all vowels (as

¤? afa marud váti,' the wind blows').

+

marut +váti becomes

* Excepting in roots, standing by themselves, or, if used as nouns, before terminations beginning with vowels.

a. There is an exception in the case of vidyut +vat, making vidyutwat, 'possessed of lightning.'

46. And final ad becomes t before hard consonants (as qafa drisad + patati becomes

falls'). See 42.

47. And final at ord becomes But final tord before initial undergoes special changes: thus—

+

fa drisat patati, the stone

n before all nasals, See 41. a. ch, ♬ j, ☎ l, ■ έ, and ₹ h,

48. If at ord ends a word, when an initial

त्

ch, ♬ j, or ♬ l, follows, then tord assimilates with these letters: thus

भयात् + लोभात् + च bhayát + lobhàt + cha becomes भयाल् लोभाच् च

bhayál lobhách cha, 'from fear and avarice.'

तद् + जीवनं tad +jivanam

=

ĦĦ taj jívanam, ‘that life.'

a. A final at ord also assimilates with a followingchh,

jh, but as, by

43.b, an aspirate is not allowed at the end of a word, the combination will be ch chh, j jh. They also assimilate with the cerebral letters t, 3d: thus dinam becomes

b. Observe-When

taḍ dínam.

+

tat+

chh is the original initial letter of a word, and a previous word ends in a short vowel (or even a long vowel), then t, changeable toch by 48.a, may be inserted: thus fa+vi+chheda may be written favichchheda.

49. If at ord ends a word, when an initial

έ follows, then

tord is changed toch, and the initial is usually changed to छ chh : thus तत् + श्रुत्वा tat + srutwá becomes तच् छ्रुत्वा tach chhrutwá, having heard that.'

Final at ord before h.

50. Ift ends a word, when initial h follows, the final at is changed to a d (by 41), and the initialh to dh: thus an+f tat +harati becomes a fa (or afя) tad dharati, ‘he seizes that.'

51. By a similar rule, and on the same principle, are written words ending in क् k, followed by initial ह h; thus वाक् + हरति vük+harati becomes वाग् घरति vág gharati, speech captivates.' Similarly, roots ending in Z, followed by a termination beginning with; thus f?+ fę dwit+hi becomes fefe dwiḍḍhi.

CHANGES OF THE NASALS.

Changes of final ♬ n.

52. If the lettern, preceded by a short vowel, ends a word, when the next begins with any vowel, the n is doubled: thus

आसन् + अत्र ásan + atra becomes आसन् अत्र ásann atra, ‘ they were there.'

तस्मिन् + उद्याने tasmin +udyáne = तस्मिन् उद्याने tasminn udyáne, — in that garden.'

53. If an ends a word, when an initial t,ch, or t, follows, a sibilant is inserted between the final and initial letter, according to the class of the initial letter; and then then passes into Anuswára by 6. b: thus

अस्मिन् + तडागे asmin + tadáge becomes अस्मिंस्तडागे or अस्मिंस् तडागे asmins taḍáge, in this pool.'

'कस्मिन् + चित् kasmin + chit = कस्मिंश्चित् kasminschit*, ' in a certain person.'

HEIT + TE: mahán + ṭan-kah = чgie: mahánshṭan-kah, 'a large axe.'

sanskára, af

pari

a. A similar euphonic s is inserted between the prepositions sam, ava, pari, prati, and certain words which begin with k, as shkára, a

pratishkára, &c. (see 70); just as in Latin, between the prepositions ab and ob, and c, q, and p.

The word

praśán (nom. of

b. n at the end of a root, or incomplete word, is not amenable to this rule : thus+fn han+ti ishanti, he kills.' praśám) is also an exception; as,

the peaceful man spreads.'

54. Rule 53 describes the only cases in which n, when originally the final of a word, can pass into Anuswára : thus, combinations like तान् जानाति or तान् ददाति can never be written ai ataifa, ai ęçıfa.

न्

55. If n ends a word, when the next begins with ś, then both n and Is may remain unchanged or be combined in either of the two following ways: 1st, the final n may be changed ton; thus +M: mahán+śúrah may be written a great hero:' 2dly, the s may be changed to chh; thus महान् छूरः.

56. Ifn ends a word, when the next begins with 1, the n assimilates with the l, and the mark is placed over the preceding vowel: thus Ta17+gaifa pakshán+lunáti becomes f पक्षाँल लुनाति 'he clips the wings. See7. Similarly, év with λáμw becomes éλλáμm; and con with ligo, colligo.

or

* The same holds good before chh, and before th, 7th; but the two latter

are never likely to occur..

a. Final n, before

jorjh, is sometimes (but very rarely) written in the

palatal form; and before 3d, ḍh, in the cerebral form T.

57. n as the final of crude bases is rejected before terminations and affixes beginning with consonants: thus

·

धनिन् + भिस् dhanin+bhis becomes धनिभिस् dhanibhis, by rich people.'

+ dhanin+twa dhanitwa, 'the state of being rich.'

a. As the final of a root it is rejected before those terminations beginning with consonants (excepting nasals and semivowels), which have no symbol indicative of Guna. (See 307 and 318.)

b. Also, when the word ending inn is the first (or any but the last) member of a compound word, even though the next member of the compound begins with a vowel: thus

राजन् + पुरुष rájan + purusha becomes राजपुरुष raja-purusha, the king's

servant.'

राजन् + इन्द्र rājan + indra = राजेन्द्र rājendra, 'the chief of kings.'

स्वामिन्+ अर्थं swámin + artham = स्वाम्यर्थं swámyartham, ' on account of the

master.'

Change of n, not final, to n.

58. If n (not final) follows any one of the three cerebral letters, ➡ri, er, a sh, in the same word, then n must be changed to the cerebral πn, even though ak, g, ч р, ■ b, (or their aspirates,) ₹ h, y, v, or ♬ m, intervene. Thus the nom. plur. of शुष्कं पुष्पं ' a withered flower,' is शुष्काणि पुष्पाणि sushkáni pushpáni (not शुष्कानि पुष्पानि). gufa). Similarly, the accus. case of brahmahan, a bráhman ब्रह्महन् slayer,' is ; the imperative of fau kship, to throw,' is क्षिपाणि; the nom. plur. of वर्मन् varman, armour,' is वर्माणि ; the instrum. sing. of mriga, a deer,' is . But the intervention ч of a dental, or cerebral consonant, or of any palatal except y, or of any letter whatever (excepting a nasal, a semivowel, or h) if conjunct with the nasal, prevents the operation of this rule. Thus the instrum. case of ч śrigála, a jackal,' is ; the nom. plur. of avartman, a word,' is f; and in further illustration of the same law, may be taken sarjana, 'abandoning;' skríḍana, playing;' fa prápnoti,' he obtains; π rájňá, 'by a king.' But is sometimes written

6

Changes of final m.

.

59. Ifm ends a word or root, when any consonant follows, then m may pass into Anuswára, or may optionally, before those consonants which have a corresponding nasal, be changed to this nasal:

thus गृहम् + जगाम griham + jagáma is written either गृहं जगाम or गृहम्

he went home: so also sam+dína becomes either

सण्डीन 'flight ;'

nyása, either

or

sam + chaya, either संचय or सचय ' collection ; sam +

¤ or #5418 'abandonment;' gam+tá, either

or गन्ता. But althoughm may in these cases pass into Anuswára, the latter must always take the sound of the nasal to which it may optionally be changed.

60. When the next word begins with a vowel, then m must always be written : thus गृहमायाति or गृहम् आयाति griham áyáti, the

comes home.'

CHANGES OF FINAL स् s.

61. Nearly every nominative case, and many other cases of nouns, in Sanskrit, besides many inflections of verbs, end ins, which is changeable to ś, and is liable to be represented by : Visarga (i. e. the symbol for a final aspirate), or to pass into r, or to be liquefied intou, or to be dropped altogether, according to the nature of the initial letter following*. At every step these changes will meet the eye therefore let the student master the following five rules, before he attempts to read a single sentence of the most elementary Sanskrit work.

66

Observe The following rules are designated by Indian grammarians, " rules for the changes of Visarga." This exaltation of a mere symbol to the place of the letter which it represents, tends, however, to embarrass the subject unnecessarily, and imparts to Visarga itself a nature so Protean, that the student is continually foiled in his effort to apprehend a character which is liable to become now s, now r, now u, now y, now to be dropped, and now to return to its original form. It seems a simpler and preferable course (the result being in the end equivalent) to start from the tangible characters, which Visarga, under certain circumstances, represents; or, in other words, to regard Visarga as no letter at all, but a mere symbol for finals, and, as we shall afterwards see at 71, for final Tr, when these letters are pronounced with an imperceptible aspiration (compare rule 8), as they are always pronounced before k, p, s, Ns, and at the end of a

sentence.

* The interchangeableness of s with r and h is not unknown in other languages. Thus the Latin flos becomes in the genitive floris; genus becomes generis: and many other Latin words, such as labor, robur, were originally written either labor or labos, robur or robus. Again, the initial aspirate in many Greek words passes in Latin into s; as, §, sex, &c.