by doubling a noun, lengthening the final of the first word, and changing the final of the last to i; as, from

'a stick,' ¿erfe 'mutual striking;' share by share;' quum ‘club to club' getafe fist to fist.'

a. Something in the same manner, doubled; thus, ni, qi,

and, another,' are mutually,'' together.'

b. The indeclinable participle, having begun,' is joined with e,to-day' (), in the sense of 'from this time forward;' and with the crude bases of other words to express 'beginning from;' see 925. f is placed adverbially after words, in the same sense; as, 'from birth upwards.'

CHAPTER IX.

SYNTAX.

794. SANSKRIT syntax, unlike that of Greek and Latin, offers fewer difficulties to the student than any other portion of the Grammar. Indeed, compounds prevail so abundantly in this language, that the writer who has properly expounded the subject of compound words has already more than half completed his investigation into the laws which regulate syntactical combinations. We shall endeavour, in the present chapter, to collect together all the most useful rules for the connexion and collocation of uncompounded words. Much vagueness and uncertainty, however, may be expected to attach to the rules propounded, when it is remembered that Sanskrit literature consists almost entirely of poetry, and that the laws of syntax are ever prone to yield to the necessities of metrical composition.

a. Observe-In the present chapter on Syntax, that the subject may be made as clear as possible, each word will be separated from the next, and vowels will not be allowed to coalesce, although such coalition be required by the laws of combination. When compounds are introduced into the examples, a dot, placed underneath, generally marks the division of the words.

THE ARTICLE.

795. There is no indefinite article in classical Sanskrit; but (228) and in modern Sanskrit (238) are sometimes used to supply the place of such an article; thus, f in a certain

country; : 'a certain jackal.' कश्चित् शृगाल:

The definite article may

not unfrequently be expressed by the pronoun

(220); thus, a gu:

may mean simply the man,' not necessarily that man.'

CONCORD OF THE VERB WITH THE NOMINATIVE CASE.

796. The verb must agree with the nominative case in number and person; as, if I must perform.'

a. Other examples are, त्वम् अवधेहि ' do thou attend ;'

स ददाति ' he gives ;'

राजा मन्त्री च जग्मतुः i f: 'as long as the moon and

आवां ब्रूव: ‘we two say ;' कपोता ऊचु: ' the pigeons said ;' 'the king and minister went;'

sun remain;' युवां चिन्तयतं ' do you two reflect ;' यूयम् आयात ' do ye come;’ सज्जनाः पूज्यन्ते 'good men are honoured ;' वाति पवन: 'the wind blows;' उदयति शशाङ्क: ‘the moon rises ;' स्फुटति पुष्पं ' the flower blossoms.'

b. Observe―The verb is usually, though not always, placed last in the sentence. 797. When a participle takes the place of the verb, it must agree with the nominative in number and gender; as, he went;' सा गता ‘she went;’ नार्य्याव् उक्तवत्यौ ' the two women spoke ;' राजा हतः 'the king was killed; fa fafa the bonds were cut.'

it agrees

a. Sometimes, when it is placed between two or more nominative cases, with one only; as, gy; uelfum yana 'his wife and son were awakened.’ b. Very often the copula, or verb which connects the subject with the predicate, is omitted; when, if an adjective stand in the place of the verb, it will follow the rules of concord in gender and number; as,

'wealth is difficult of

attainment;' आवां कृताहारौ ' we two have finished eating.' But if a substantive stand in the place of the verb, no concord of gender or number need take place; as, सम्पदः पदम् आपदां 'successes are the road to misfortunes.’

CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE SUBSTANTIVE.

798. An adjective, participle, or adjective pronoun, qualifying a substantive, when not compounded with it, must agree with the substantive in gender, number, and case; as, ry:: 'a good man;' महद् दु:खं ' great pain ;' एतेषु पूर्वोक्त्रेषु राष्ट्रेषु ' in these beforementioned countries; if faarf three friends.'

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CONCORD OF THE RELATIVE WITH THE ANTECEDENT.

799. The relative must agree with the antecedent noun in gender, number, and person; but in Sanskrit the relative pronoun generally precedes the noun to which it refers, this noun being put in the same case with the relative, and the pronoun follows in the latter clause of the sentence ; as, यस्य नरस्य बुद्धिः स बलवान् ' of whatever man there is intellect, he is strong.'

a. The noun referred to by the relative may also be joined with ☎, as बुद्धिः स नरो बलवान्; or may be omitted altogether, as यत् प्रतिज्ञातं तत् पालय 'what you have promised, that abide by;' dara zurifa znfenfa à: (qfafo: understood) by those (birds) whose young ones were devoured an inquiry was set on foot ;' य: सर्वान् विषयान् प्राप्नुयाद् यश्च एतान् उपेक्षते तयोर् विषयापेक्षकः श्रेयान् ‘he who would obtain all objects of sense, and he who despises them, of the two the despiser is the best.'

800. The relative sometimes stands alone, an antecedent noun or pronoun being understood, from which it takes its gender and number; as, a gweng (and understood) 4 frau : 'there is not a happier (than that man) of whom there is conversation with a friend ;' धनेन किं यो न ददाति ' What is the use of wealth (to him) who does not give?'

a. Sometimes, though rarely, the antecedent noun precedes the relative in the natural order ; as, न सा भाय्यी यस्यां भत्ता न तुष्पति ' she is not a wife in whom the husband does not take pleasure.'

801. तावत् and यावत् stand to each other in the relation of demonstrative and relative; as, यावन्ति तस्य द्वीपस्य वस्तूनि तावन्ति अस्माकम् उपनेतव्यानि ' as many products as belong to that island, so many are to be brought to us.' See also 876. a. Similarly, तादृश and यादृश; as, यादृशं वृत्तं तादृशं तस्मै कथितवन्त: ' as the event occurred, so they related it to him.'

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.

802. Under this head it is proposed to explain the construction of substantives, without reference to their connexion with particular adjectives, verbs, or participles; and for this purpose it will be desirable to exhibit examples under each case.

Nominative case.

803. A substantive simply and absolutely expressed must be placed in the nominative case; as, fe: the Hitopadeśa;' भट्टिकाव्यं ' the poem of Bhatti . '

a. Two nominative cases in different numbers may be placed in apposition to each other; as, quifa 'grass as a bed.’

Accusative case.

804. Substantives are not found in the accusative, unconnected with verbs or participles, except as expressing 'duration of time' or 'space.' See 821.

Instrumental case.

805. This case yields a variety of senses. The most usual is that of the instrument' or 'means' by which any thing is done; as,

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मया (उक्तं) ' by me it was said ;' व्याधेन (पाशो योजित: ) ' by the fowler a snare was laid;' वेदाध्ययनेन ' by the study of the Vedas;' स्वचक्षुषा 'with one's own eye.'

806. It also has the force of 'with' in expressing other collateral ideas ; as, बलीयसा स्पर्द्धा ' vying with the strong; मित्रेण सम्भाष: ' conversation with a friend ; पशुभिः सामान्यं ' equality with beasts;' पितुर् with the knowledge of (his) father:' especially when 'accompaniment' is intended; as, for the master with his pupil.' 807. The other senses yielded by this case are, through,' ' by reason of,'' on account of;' as, कृपया 'through compassion;' तेन अपराधेन 'on account of that transgression:' especially in the case of abstract nouns formed with (80. XXIII); as,

through infatuation.'

a. ‘According to,’ ‘by; as, विधिना ' according to rule;' मम सम्मतेन 'according to my opinion;'

by birth.'

b. 'The manner' in which any thing is done, as denoted in English by the adverbial affix 'ly,' or by the prepositions 'in,''at;' as, 'in abundance;' धर्मेण ‘virtuously ;' यथेच्छया or स्वेच्छया 'at pleasure ;' सुखेन 'at ease;' अनेन विधिना ‘in this way ;' महता खेहेन (निवसतः) 'they both dwell together in great intimacy;' (नृपः सर्व्वभूतानि अभिभवति) तेजसा 'a king surpasses all beings in glory;' (7) ́such a deed must not even be imagined in the mind;' मानुषरूपेण ‘in human form.'

808. Substantives expressive of' want,'' need,' may be joined with the instrumental of the thing wanted; as, there is no occasion for inquiry;' मया सेवकेन न प्रयोजनं ‘there is no need of me as a servant ;' तृणेन कायें 'there is

use for a straw.'

809. The price' for which any thing is done may be in the instrumental; as, पञ्चभिः पुराणैर् (याति दासत्वं ) ' for five Puránas he becomes a slave;' बहुभिर् दत्तैर् ( युध्यन्ते) 'they fight for great rewards' Similarly, प्राणपरित्यागमूल्येन (श्रीर् न )'fortune is not obtained at the price of the sacrifice of life.'

अन्तरं

a. So also 'difference between' two things; as, FT HAR ▼ HEÇ UMĖ there is great difference between you and the ocean.'

b. The English expression 'under the idea that' is expressed by the instrumental case of the substantive बुद्धि; as, व्याघ्र बुड्या 'under the idea that he was a tiger.'

Double Instrumental.

810. Sometimes when two substantives come together, expressing parts' of a common idea, they are both placed in the instrumental, instead of one in the genitive; as, y an odour is emitted by the bakul-plants by their flowers' (for वकुलानां पुष्पै: ). Similarly, ताम् आश्वासयामास प्रेष्पाभिश् चन्द:he caused her to revive by her attendants by sandal-water.'

Dative case.

811. This case is of very limited applicability, and its functions, irrespectively of the influence of verbs, are restricted to the expression of the object,'' motive,' or 'cause' for which any thing is done, or 'the result' to which any act tends; as, faqe for self-aggrandizement;' आपत्प्रतीकाराय ' for the counteraction of calamity ;' शस्त्रं च farms and books (lead) to renown.'

a. When, as in the last example, the result' or 'end' to which any thing leads is denoted by this case, the verb is seldom expressed, but appears to be involved in the case itself. The following are other examples: यत्र जास्ते विषसंसर्गे ऽमृतं तदपि मृत्यवे ' where there is admixture of poison, then even nectar (leads) to death;' zervi vetura a g'advice to fools (leads) to irritation, not to conciliation ;' स वृद्धपतिम् तस्याः सन्तोषाय न अभवत् ' that old husband was not to her liking.'

b. It will be seen hereafter that certain verbs of giving and relating govern the dative. Substantives derived from such verbs exercise a similar influence; as, अन्यस्मै दानं ' the giving to another ;' अन्यस्मै कथनं 'the telling to another.'

c. Words expressive of 'salutation' or 'reverence' are joined with the dative; as, गणेशाय नम: ‘reverence to Ganesa ; कुशलं ते ‘health to thee.’

Ablative case.

812. The proper force of the ablative case is expressed by 'from;' as, लोभात् (क्रोधः प्रभवति) ' from avarice anger arises ;' गिरे: पतनं ' falling from a mountain;' arcui yem 'from the mouth of the spies.'

813. Hence this case passes to the expression of various correlative ideas; as, आहारात् किञ्चित् wern fafen a portion of (from) their food:' and like the instrumental it very commonly signifies 'by reason of,' 'in consequence of;' as, naguroi बधात् ‘on account of the slaughter of cows and men;' अनवसर प्रवेशात् (पुत्रं निन्दति ) ' he blames his son for entering inopportunely ;' दण्डभयात् 'through fear of punishment;' wereby reason of my good fortune.'

a. 'According to;' as, according to the advice of the minister." Abstract nouns in are often found in this case to express some of these ideas; as, अनवस्थित चित्तत्वात् ' by reason of the unsteadiness of his mind :' especially in the writings of commentators; as, according to what will be said

hereafter.'

814. It also expresses 'through the means' or 'instrumentality of;' as, पाशबद्धः‘caught in the toils through the instrumentality of the jackal;' न औौषधपरिज्ञानाद् (व्याधेः शान्तिर् भवेत् ) ' the alleviation of disease is not effected by the mere knowledge of the medicine.'