Many roots prefix i to the Atmane, but not to the Parasmai, of the above tense:

thus, 1. इषीय ishíya, 2. इषीष्ठास् ishishthás, &c.

Many roots prefix i to the terminations of the above tense throughout: thus, 1. इष्पं ishyam, 2. इष्पस् ishyas, &c.

a. As an aid in committing the above terminations to memory, observe that the letter m generally enters into the 1st sing. Parasmai; s into the 2d sing. Parasmai and Atmane; and t into the 3d sing. du. and pl. Parasmai and Atmane of all the tenses. Moreover, that the letter v occurs in the 1st dual, m in the 1st plural of all the tenses, and dhw in every 2d plural Atmane-pada. In the potential and Ist preterite Atmane, and in the 2d preterite Parasmai, th is admitted, instead of s, into the 2d sing.; and in the 2d pl. of the last tense, th has been dropped, owing to the influence of the heavy reduplication. For the same reason the t is dropped in the 3d sing. of the 2d pret. Observe also—When the 1st dual Parasmai is vas, the 2d and 3d end in as, and the 1st plural is mas. When the 1st dual Parasmai is va, the 2d and 3d end in tam, tám, and the 1st plural in ma. When the Ist dual Atmane is vahe, the 1st plural is mahe, and the last letter of the remaining terminations is generally e. When the 1st dual Atmane is vahi, the 2d and 3d end in ám; the 1st plural is mahi, and the 2d plural is dhwam. Note also-The terminations of the 2d future resemble those of the present, with sya prefixed. Those of the 1st future also resemble the present, with tá or tás prefixed. Those of the conditional resemble the 1st preterite, with sya prefixed. Those of the 3d preterite also resemble the 1st preterite, with s prefixed. Those of the benedictive resemble the potential, with s inserted in most of the Parasmai; and with s both inserted and prefixed in some of the Atmane.

b. The frequent occurrence of m in the 1st sing., of s in the 2d, of t in the 3d, of mas and ma in the 1st pl., of ta in the 2d pl., and of ant in the 3d pl., suggests a comparison with the Greek and Latin verb. We may remark, that m, the characteristic of the 1st person sing., is suppressed in the present tense active of all Greek verbs excepting those in μ (asmi = èμμí, dadámi = didwμi), and also in Latin verbs (except sum and inquam); but w and o answer to the Sanskrit á of bharámi pépw, fero. In the Greek middle and passive, the μ, which originally belonged to all active verbs, appears in μau; while the Sanskrit, on the other

=

hand, here suppresses the m, and contracts a i into e (see 32); bhare (for bhara-me for bhara-mai) = pépoμa. Greek has in the 1st sing. optative or potential; and in verbs in μ, takes the place of the mute m of Sanskrit and Latin: thus, bhareyam = pépoiμ, feram; dadyám = didoíny, dem; tishṭheyam=iotaíny, stem. In the 1st preterite or imperfect, Greek has for the Sanskrit and Latin mute m; atarpam=eτepπov, adadám = èdidwv, astṛinavam = éσtópvvv, avaham = vehebam. In the first Greek aorist, m is suppressed, so that Sanskrit adiksham (3d pret.) = deita; but not in the 2d aorist, so that adám = Edwv. In the 2d preterite the Sanskrit a Greek a, tutopa=Téтupa. In the Greek middle and passive τέτυφα. futures, m is retained, but not in the active; dásyámi=dwow, dekshyámi=deíkow, dásyedwooμal. As to the 1st person plural, the Sanskrit mas of the pres. is μev (for μes) in Greek, and mus in Latin; tarpá-mas=Tépπo-μev; sarpá-mas= ἕρπο-μεν, serpi-mus; dad-mas = δίδομεν, da-mus; tishtha-mas = ἵστα-μεν, sta-mus. The Atmane-pada mahe answers to the Greek μela; dad-mahe= διδό μela. As to the other tenses, in the potential 1st pl. bhare-ma=pépoi-μes (-μev), fera-mus; dadyáma=didoínues (-μev), demus; dadí-mahi=didoí-μeba. In the 1st preterite 1st pl. abhará-ma = éþépo-μev, fereba-mus; avahá-ma = veheba-mus; adad-ma=édido-μer; abhará-mahi=épepóμela. In the 2d future, dásyá-mas= dwoo-μev, dekshyá-mas-deixσo-μev. In the 2d pers. sing. active, the characteristic s has been preserved in all three languages: thus, in the present, the Sanskrit asi= kool, es; dadá-si = didws, das; bhara-si = pépes, fers; vahasi = vehis. In the Atmane, the Sanskrit se (for sai, by 32) answers exactly to the Greek σal of verbs in μ (tishtha-se =lora-σα). In other Greek verbs, s has been rejected, and eas contracted into , something in the way of Sanskrit (TUTтy for TúnтE-σα). In the 2d dual, thas=Greek Tov, and in the 2d plur. tha=TE and tis; bhara-thas =pépe-Tov; tishtha-tha="σTa-TE, statis; bhara-tha=pépe-te, fer-tis. In the 2d pl. Atmane, bhara-dhwe = pépeσbe. As to the other tenses, in the 2d sing. potential, tishthes = iotaíns, stes; dadyás=didoíns, des; vahes=vehas; bhares =pépois, feras: in 2d du. bhare-tam = pépo-Tov: in 2d pl. tishtheta = iσrainte, stetis; dadyáta=didointe, detis; bhareta = pépoite, feratis. In the 2d sing. imperative, hi and dhi answer to Greek . Dhi was originally universal in Sanskrit (see 291), as in Greek verbs in μu; e-dhi = "0-01, vid-dhi = "0-01, de-hi=dido-01. Many verbs drop the termination hi both in Greek and Sanskrit; as, HT= φέρε, deíkvu with chinu, &c. In the 2d du. imp. tam = Tov, and ta=TE. In the imperative Atmane, swa = the old form 0; bhara-swa = pépe-σo (old form of pépov); dat-swa = dido-σo; áthám = eσbov, &c. In the 2d sing. 1st pret. atarpas="eτepπes, avahas=vehebas, &c. So also, tam=Tov, adat-tam-édido-Tov, ta=TE, adat-ta= edido-re. In the Atmane, thás is found for sás in the 2d sing. of the 1st pret., as well as of the potential; hence abhara-thás = ἐφέρετο, adat-thás édido-oo, dadí-thás=dídos (o)o. In the 2d pret. the tha of the 2d sing. Latin sti; dad-itha=dedi-sti, tasthi-tha = steti-sti, tutodi-tha = tutudi-sti. In the 3d pret. adás= edws, avákshís = vexisti. In the 3d pers. sing. active, Greek has dropped the characteristic t (except in eorí= Sansk. asti, Lat. est); bharati

and compare

=

=

: Þépe(T), fert; vahati = vehit. Verbs in μ have changed t to s; dadáti= didwol (for didwri). In the Atmane, bharate = péperal. In the potential, bharet =pépoi, dadyát = didoin. In the imperative, bhara-tu or bhara-tát = pepé-Tw, φερέτω, fer-to. In the 1st pret. avahat vehebat, abharata = épépeto. In the 2d pret. tutopa TéTupe. In the 3d pret. avákshít vexit, adikshata edeíkσato. As to the 3d pl., in the above tenses, bharanti=pépovo, ferunt; vahanti=vehunt ; bharante = pépovraι; dadati=didovσi; tishṭanti=stant; bhareyus = péposer ; bharantu = ferunto; abharan=epepov; abharanta=épépovto; ásan=žoav; atarpishus = (Tepav; dásyante =dwσovτal. See Bopp's Comparative Grammar, passim.

248. The above terminations are supposed to be applicable to all verbs, whether primitive or derivative: and as in nouns, so in verbs, the theory of Indian grammarians is, that before these terminations can be affixed to roots, an inflective base must be formed out of the root. Ten different rules, therefore, are propounded for forming verbal bases out of roots in the first four tenses; while all verbs are arranged under ten classes, according as they follow one or other of these rules. In the other tenses there is only one general rule for forming the base.

These ten classes of verbs are called the ten conjugations; and the four tenses, which alone are affected by the conjugational rules (viz. the present, potential, imperative, and first preterite), are called the conjugational tenses. It is evident, however, that the ten conjugations are hardly conjugations in the classical sense of the term. They are rather ten rules for moulding and fashioning ten classes of roots into the proper form for receiving a common scheme of terminations in four of the tenses only.

249. The following is a brief summary of the ten rules for forming the base of the four conjugational tenses in the ten classes of verbs, according to the Indian arrangement of the conjugations.

1st class (1st conjugation). Gunate the vowel of the root (unless it be a or precede a double consonant, 28. b) before every termination of the four tenses, and affix the vowel a-lengthened to á

before initial m or v -to the root thus guņated.

2d class (2d conjugation). Gunate the radical vowel (unless it be a or precede a double consonant) before those terminations only which are marked with P in the scheme at 246. Before all the other terminations the original vowel of the root must be retained.

3d class (3d conjugation). Reduplicate the initial consonant and

vowel of the root, and gunate the radical but not the reduplicated vowel before the P terminations only, as in the 2d conjugation.

4th class (4th conjugation). Affix ya-lengthened to yá before initial m or v-to the root, the vowel of which is generally left unchanged.

5th class (5th conjugation). Affix nu to the root, and guņate this nu into no before the P terminations only.

6th class (6th conjugation). Affix a-lengthened to a before initial m or v―to the root, which in other respects generally remains unchanged.

7th class (7th conjugation). Insert na between the vowel and final consonant of the root before the P terminations, and An before the other terminations. Observe the peculiarity of this conjugationthat the conjugational na or n is inserted into the middle of the root, and not affixed.

8th class (8th conjugation). Affixu to the root, and guņate this u into o before the P terminations only. Observe-As all the roots, except one, in this class, end in n, the 8th conjugation will appear to be exactly similar to the 5th.

9th class (9th conjugation). Affix ná to the root before the P terminations; ní before all the others, excepting those beginning with vowels, where onlyn is affixed.

10th class (10th conjugation). Gunate the radical vowel throughout all the persons of all the tenses, and affix wa aya-lengthened to ayá before initial m or to the root thus guṇated.

250. It will appear, from a cursory examination of the above rules, that the object of all of them, excepting the 2d, 3d, and 7th, is to insert a vowel, either alone or preceded by y or n, between the modified root and the terminations; and that the 1st, 4th, 6th, and 10th, agree in requiring that the vowel, which is immediately to precede the terminations, shall be a. It will appear, moreover, that the 2d, 3d, and 7th, alone agree in not interposing a vowel between the final of the root and the terminations; and that the 5th, 8th, and 9th, agree in interposing either u, á, or í, after the letter n.

a. It must never, however, be forgotten, that the conjugational characteristic, whatever it may be, has reference only to the four conjugational tenses (excepting only in the 10th conjugation), and that in the other tenses the base is formed according to one general

rule for all verbs of whatever conjugation; or, in other words, that in these tenses all verbs, of whatever class, are as if they belonged to one common conjugation.

b. It is evident, that a comparison between the difficulty of the Sanskrit and Greek verb would be greatly to the advantage of the former. The Greek verb has three voices, and about ninety tenses and moods: the Sanskrit has only two voices, and not more than twenty tenses and moods. Besides which, a far greater number of verbs are susceptible of the three voices in Greek, than of the two in Sanskrit. Moreover, in Sanskrit there are no contracted verbs, and no difficulties resulting from difference of dialect; and although there are ten conjugations, yet these have reference to four tenses only; and, under some of these conjugations, only two or three common verbs are contained.

251. Hence it appears, that the very meaning of Sanskrit conjugation is the Sandhi or junction of a verbal base (formed out of a root according to ten rules for four of the tenses, and one general rule for the other tenses) with a common scheme of terminations, and that in conjugating a verb, two things have to be done; 1st, to form the base from the root, in the manner described above; 2dly, to join the base with the terminations, according to the rules of Sandhi.

252. Before proceeding to a detailed explanation of the formation of the verbal base of the simple or primitive verb, under the several classes, it will be worth while to specify the four other verbs deducible from roots, and to explain how they are derived.

a. It has been already shown, at 74, that there are a large number of monosyllabic sounds in Sanskrit, called roots, which are the source of verbs as well as nouns. These roots are in number about two thousand; and the theory of grammarians is, that each of them may serve as the rough block out of which the inflective bases of five kinds of verbs may be fashioned: 1. of a primitive, transitive or intransitive; 2. of a passive; 3. of a causal, having often a causal and often merely a transitive signification; 4. of a desiderative, giving a sense of wishing to the root; and 5. of a frequentative (or intensive), implying repetition, or heightening the idea contained in

the root.

b. It will be found, however, in practice, that the greater number of these two thousand roots never occur at all in the form of verbs, nor, indeed, in any other form but that of the nouns to which they give origin; and that the roots in real use, as the source of verbs, are comparatively few. Of these few, moreover, certain particular roots (such, for example, as kṛi, to do'), as if to compensate