civilization we see presenting itself is certainly not so interesting a study as that of the habits and customs which, though hoary with antiquity, are still so binding upon the masses and are so universally observed, all around us, at the present day.

The subject of Hindu homes is, of course, a very wide one, and may include many varieties, from the miserable hut of the lowest outcaste up to the lordly dwelling of the Maharajah. The extreme poverty of the very lowest classes, the complete absence of all ideas of comfort, and the simple requirements of a tropical climate, together serve to perpetuate the primitive character, and the miserable squalor of the ordinary labourer's hut. A few jungle sticks and the leaves of any of the varieties of the palm, or a few bundles of grass or reeds, suffice to make a covering into which the poor man and his family can creep on cold nights, or during the heavy rains; but such a place can scarcely be called a home. This class of people live mostly out of doors, both night and day; and the hut is simply a shelter from inclement weather, and a place for the safe custody of the few simple pots, and cooking utensils that form the family belongings. Of course there are infinite gradations from this primitive dwelling to the palaces of the great chiefs and kings, but, as far as I have been able to judge, after a long and varied experience, there is one thing in common about them all; from an Englishman's point of view, there seems to be an absence of that comfort, that indescribable something which is the charm of an English home, and which causes us to use the word as a synonym for the eternal happiness beyond. This may be only one's insular prejudice and the association of ideas; for, after all, comfort and happiness are but comparative terms; still this is how it has always struck me, from my own point of view. Without, however, attempting a description of either end of this long catalogue, we will take an ordinary house of the fairly well-todo Hindu, and by giving a more or less detailed representation of that, lead the reader to form a judgment as to the whole.

Before describing the house itself, it will be best to mention some of the regulations connected with the building of it-regulations as to its site, and materials to be used in its construction, and the time for commencing the work. All these things are minutely laid down in Hindu books of greater or less antiquity. There is one book called Nirnayasindhu (the ocean of ritual), which is a kind of encyclopædia of all Hindu customs; and a smaller work called Kālāmrutam (the nectar of time), which contains the sixteen rites or regulations concerning the sixteen chief events in a man's life, from his birth to his death. From these two books a smaller one has been compiled called Vastu Shastram (the science of domestic architecture), which treats of all matters connected with buildings, especially private dwellings, and though many of the directions are not now generally complied with, most of those that are here described are still followed out, by the ordinary orthodox Hindu. There are regular professional persons called Vastu Shastris (doctors of building), generally of the goldsmith caste, whose business it is, for a consideration, of course, to give all the correct measurements and directions, in due accordance with ritual, to those about to erect new dwellings. I heard some time ago of a celebrated member of this profession, and sent for him, as I wished to see his books, and to generally make his acquaintance. At first the old gentleman declined to come, as he feared Europeans; he thought he might be beaten, or otherwise ill-treated! After some time, however, upon being assured that he would meet with nothing but kind treatment, he consented to come. I was pleased to see my new friend, but I did not get much out of him, as he had not brought his books. They were at his village, some ten miles away; but he promised to get them, and to tell me about his profession. He was a most respectable looking old man, and being of the goldsmith caste, he wore the thread of the dvija or twice born. He did not, however, keep his appointment to come by a certain day, the reason being that he was hastily summoned to a village some

distance off, on the south of the Kistna river. It appears that a certain man, who was building a new house, had fallen ill, and he sent in haste for this doctor; not a doctor for his body, be it observed, but a doctor for the house! Something must have gone wrong in the calculations, or in the dimensions, or something or other of the new building, and hence this blow from the offended deity. Money was sent to defray the expenses of this celebrated Shastri, but he would not go until he was assured that his advice would be followed, even if it involved pulling down portions of the building already erected. How he fared in this expedition I have never heard; but it appears that sometime ago this same old gentleman was sent for to attend another case, the result of which brought him great fame. A certain house owner had recently entered a new house which he had built, but within a month he fell very ill. It was thought that something must be wrong with the building, and this house-doctor was sent for. Having considered the case, the doctor decided, by virtue of his science, that there was a snake in a certain beam of the building. The reptile had entered the hollow part of the beam, which had been plugged up by the carpenter, and was there languishing, and hence the calamity. A snake charmer was summoned, the beam was sawn through, and a reptile which turned out to be a cobra, was drawn out by the snake charmer and placed in an earthen vessel. It was there fed with milk for some ten days, until it had revived, and recovered its strength, when it was taken away to a suitable place and set free. The patient recovered his strength in proportion as the cobra's strength revived, and within a few days he was quite well. The wisdom and skill displayed by our friend in this case was much praised, and he was suitably rewarded. These simple stories are here narrated for what they are worth. The people fully believe in them, and they will serve to show the superstitious notions that are still entertained in connection with Hindu dwellings.

The first question that arises in connection with the building of a house is as to the site, and many direc

tions are given as to the colour, and taste, and smell of the soil, together with the various means of testing its being a lucky or unlucky spot or neighbourhood; but much of this is, I fancy, considered obsolete now. Builders are still, however, very particular as to the position of the house with reference to a temple, and also as to the presence of human bones in the soil. If, on digging for the foundations of a new dwelling, any bit of human bone should be turned up, the greatest care is taken to discover and remove any particle that can be found; even if the site is not altogether abandoned. Perhaps it is not difficult to imagine how this idea may have originated from sanitary considerations. If, again, the owner should fall ill whilst the building is going on, and die before it is finished, the whole thing is completely abandoned, and no one would think of taking over the work with a view to completing it. A house must not be built in front of a Siva temple, as the eye of that god has an evil influence; nor must it be built behind one to Vishnu, but it may be built on either side of any one of them. A most curious fact is the apparently small thing that will cause a Hindu to desert his home, either for a longer or shorter period, and sometimes for good and all. Particulars will be given later on as to the causes for which a house may be considered unclean or unlucky, but I will here relate a peculiar case that came under my own observation, sometime ago, as it has to do with the question of the site upon which a house may be built.

Several years ago I had occasion to pass through a certain village which, I noticed, was completely deserted, and many of the houses dismantled. It was a Sudra village of well-to-do farmers. It was getting late in the forenoon, and as I had not yet breakfasted, this appeared to be a good opportunity to make a halt. The village munsiff (the village executive officer), who came up, gave me permission to pass the heat of the day in the sheltered courtyard of one of the houses that was still left standing. My frugal meal was soon despatched, and then I began to explore and to seek for information. I was informed

that, for certain religious reasons, the whole village had been abandoned, and the farmers settled on a site, which was pointed out to me, about half a mile distant from their old homes. They had pulled down their houses and utilized what they could of the old materials for rebuilding. The reason given for this was as follows. It appears that for some time there had been a great deal of sickness in the village, and many deaths, and it was decided by the Brahmins that a curse rested upon the place. On looking round for the probable cause of this, it was discovered from certain signs, or pretended to have been discovered, that there must have formerly been a temple near the village tank which was close at hand; and as there was no vestige of the temple left, it was concluded that it must have been destroyed! For this or some other reason, the anger of the particular god had been aroused, and he had cursed the village, hence the number of deaths. One can imagine the consternation this decision would cause amongst these poor superstitious people. They, however, do not seem to have questioned the decision, but simply decided that it was the will of the gods that they should remove. Accordingly, for a pecuniary consideration, the Brahmins pointed out a new site, and the simple folks began at once to remove their dwellings. At the time of my visit most of the houses had been completely dismantled, and nothing was left of them but the substantial mud walls which presented the appearance of a sad, but by no means picturesque,

A few of the old inhabitants, among whom were the barber and the potter, still lingered on, probably because they had not the wherewithal to meet the expense of removing. The site upon which the old village was built was in every respect superior, from sanitary and other points of view, to the low and ill drained place to which the removal had been made, but no logic of facts can overcome the superstitious fears of these poor deluded people. Probably the real cause of the unhealthiness of the place might have been found in some of the back-yards or other surroundings. Dame Nature had been outraged by a