Primum alto se gurgite tollunt Solis equi, lucemque elatis naribus efflant. B. XII. lines 114-15.

Artificial to the very last.

bath. The sketches show that Virgil's observation, if it fails utterly as to the sea itself, had gone to the very edge of the land to the verge where it and the In this sketch we have exhausted the water mingle, and even a few inches besea-allusions of the great story. This is yond. In Book III. he catches sight for absolutely all that Virgil makes of the a moment of colour on the evening ocean in the whole of Eneas's sea-wan-ocean; but it is far away in Scythia, and derings, either as described by the hero the sun-god is again descending in his or by the mouth of the poet himself. chariot, to bathe it in the flaming water, There is scarcely any possible marine Nor is "red surface of the ocean " (oceani effect which he has not the opportunity of rubro... æquore) a pearl of poetical picturing, yet in no single passage is it description. It must be mentioned that or three possible to detect any spark of true feel- in the Georgics occur two ing for the water, beyond that of a dreary touches of reality of a very grotesque If in the discontent at its power and savageness. kind in reference to the sea. It might be thought that he knew noth- Eneid, Virgil, in sketching Neptune and ing of the sea-that he had never seen his train, gives a picture too artificially it. But Horace's famous ode, praying elegant for the modern fancy, in the for fair weather for him, is evidence that Fourth Georgic he describes Proteus he made at least one voyage. Still fur- and his attendants in a style which is a "Monstrous ther is the puzzle heightened, when we trifle too realistic for us. remember that he is understood to have herds and misshapen sea-calves" (immalived long at Naples, with its glorious bay. nia armenta et turpes phocas) this watery But let us turn for a moment to the shepherd has under his charge; and they minor poems. In the Eclogues the sea come out of the flood, and sleep around is mentioned in some dozen lines, of him on the hot shore. At any rate, the course by way of illustrative reference. passage has a rough power, as of a gobTowards the close of Eclogue IV. Vir-lin story of the sea. gil speaks of "plains of sea The question may be asked, What (tractus maris). This does bring the object before epithets does Virgi! apply to the sea? the mind. And in the Fifth Eclogue oc- For it will go hard with a poet, if he has curs the only line anywhere which shows any genuine emotion stirred in him by an that Virgil had perceived the music of object, if it does not flash out in a name, the sea, apart from its mere roaring, its even should he find himself, for some hoarseness, its moaning. Mopsus, in ex- reason, debarred from a detailed descriptolling the song of Menacles, asks, tion. Some epithets are themselves de"What gifts are there that I can give scriptions. Take three sample ones of you in return for such a lay? For neither Shakespeare, applied to this same subThe "multitudinous " sea, the the whistling of the south wind as it ject. comes, nor billow-beaten shores (percussa"yeasty" waves, and the "wasteful" fluctu littora) delight me so," &c. The ocean. Virgil speaks of the sea as boundphrase itself may not be of the best, but less (“immensi maris," G. I., line 29); idem, line there is the feeling of delight coupled windy ("ventosa æquora,' with the sea. We eagerly hail the fact, 206); faithless ("infidum marmor," idem, and wish it were not unavoidable to men-line 254); deep (" maria alta," G. II., line tion that this Eclogue is known to have 479, et "maris alti," Æn. Lib. V., line been modelled on Theocritus. Next, as 799); dark blue (“mare purpureum," G. to the Georgics; they have some thirty IV., line 373); azure (“ vada cærula,” Æn. lines in which the sea occurs. From the Lib. VII., line 198, et "cærula freta," nature of the work, the passages are for idem, Lib. X., line 209); mighty ("magthe most part only allusive; but of all num æquor,” G. IV., line 388); vast Virgil's writings, it is here that we find("vasti ponti," idem, line 430); foaming the sea-phrases strongest, the descriptions truest. Some of the best lines, it is true, describe the coast rather than the ocean; as, for instance, the striking lines in the First Georgic, giving the signs of a coming tempest. There is also the passage a little further on, where the various water-fowl are wantonly disporting themselves in the joy of their saltous

("spumantem undam,” idem, line 529, et "spumantibus undis," Æn. Lib. III., line 268); salt ("campos salis," idem, Lib. X., line 214); moaning (gemitum ingentem pelagi," idem, Lib. III., line 555); restless (" assiduo sale," idem, Lib. V., line 866); swelling ("fluctu tumenti," idem, Lib. VIÍ., line 810). He also speaks of the "peril

seas.

These are all we notice in turning over to all its music, still could deal with the the pages. Of them, "deep" appears to ocean when he could do so, as it were, by compete with "salt" for the position reflecting it, we have designedly left till of favourite, "foaming" coming next. now. Virgil's grandest sea piece was in "Boundless," "restless," "faithless," metal — on the surface of Æneas's shield, are words which may be held to embody he sees it all as in a mirror. Here the what we have earlier termed the central sea swells all gold, the blue waves foam feeling of the object, but Virgil does not in hoary spray, dolphins of shining silver use them in a way showing any varying sweep the flood in circles, and the brazen individual appreciation of them; they all galleys of the opposing fleets burn upon seem to merge in the one sentiment of the surging waters. The passage is too the savageness, danger, dread of the sea. lengthy to quote; those who know Virgil It would not be fair to compare Virgil's will not need its quoting. If he had ever epithets with those of Homer in relation given us the direct picture of which this to the ocean. The Greek language lent is the reflection, there would have been itself better to the compounding of no room for critic'sm nineteen hundred phrases, besides the lighter feeling which years after. At least it is the noblest sea the Greek sea, with its indented shores that ever flowed in metal. and lovely islands, naturally inspired among the people. Other reasons would make it unfair to instance modern poets (it is true, we have already mentioned Shakespeare), either our own or continental; our present mode of regarding natural objects as beautiful in themselves is not the ancient manner, as we will point out directly. But Virgil does not show to advantage in this matter alongside other Latin writers, even his contemporaries. Not to hunt for any outof-the-way comparisons, take the author who competes successfully with him for the place of best-known. Horace is nearly as blind as Virgil to any downright beauty in the sea, but he says nothing tame of it. The ocean is mostly in a tempest with Horace.

Several reasons may be given why Virgil in his dealing with the sea exhibits these failures, as we moderns must consider them. In the first place, besides the unavoidable excess of the didactic element, a literary fashion of a very peculiar kind then prevailed. In the highest attempts at poetical description, it was thought there was something much finer to be tried after than natural accounts of the actual scenes, namely, the mythologi cal personages conventionally associated with them. When a dawn at sea had to be related, it was not the ever-brightening sky and the dimpled stirrings of the farflashing waves that were thought of, but the image of Aurora rising from the saffron couch of Tithonus; in the evening, there was not enough to satisfy in the But it is with Virgil we have specially tumultuous glories of the sun, half-hidto do in this paper, and we wish to part den in his own splendours, sinking amidst with the noble poet on the best terms orange clouds and crimson billows; in possible. Within the narrow restraining the heart of that shining business there shores of a simile Virgil could sway the was a brighter central vision of Phoebus sea well enough; a single wave cut off unyoking his fiery horses, bathing them from the rest he was very successful with. in the ocean. We cannot understand it; Take the lines in the Third Georgic, we have none of the cues of the old faiths where he so magnificently illustrates the to help us. It now seems unnatural, inanger of the bull by the figure of a whit-credible that men ever thought such ening billow rolling in shore. A simile much akin to it is used nearly as effectively in describing the fight with the rioters in the seventh book of the Eneid; and, in the eleventh book, in illustrating the fluctuations of battle beteen the Tuscans and the Rutulians, a still more sustained image is drawn from the alternate rushes and withdrawals of the ocean tide upon the beach. Literature would have to be ransacked for a more nobly-managed simile. But our last completed proof that Virgil, though so impotent in the actual presence of the sea, seeing so little of its play, and deaf

scenes too poor for them, and believed that they could put something better worth describing in their place. Still, it was so throughout the whole range of literary tasks. If a river had to be introduced at its best, an old man - Father Tiber-rises among the sedges; the flowing of his beard, not that of the stream, is what has to be admired. Or should a moonlight scene have to be pictured, the heavens themselves in their soft whiteness, as the silver orb glides through them, are not displayed, we are told something of the kindly goddess in her nightly wandering car. These artificiali

ties must have come hinderingly between is actually much more interesting now the describer and natural objects, turning than it was then. Owing to the modern his gaze inwards. The fashion, however, scientific civilization having given us sufficed for Virgil: he makes no attempt to alter it.

It may be that in those times a necessity of this sort was imposed by the spirit of art itself that natural objects were too disturbing in a part of their actual associations for the higher emotional uses; at least, that the pathetic feelings they stirred were too strong, too selfenforcing, for the serener enjoyments, without some abatement - this being got by the human imagination substituting personifications, which left out to the required degree the agitating memories. The ocean, the sky, the weather were too fatal for men in those days to be lightly dealt with by them in their stark reality without mitigation. From this obligation we are now finally released.

greater power over nature, there has been a general mitigation of the old bleakness of the central feeling of things arising out of their sway over the human lot; but in the case of no great object of nature, no aspect of the world, has this blessed change been nearly so telling as with respect to the sea. In our own instance, the sentiment must have ameliorated very greatly during the two generations that have witnessed steam navigation. The feeling of the ancient Latins towards the sea, we have already urged, was worse than that of the Greeks, differing more than theirs from the modern emotion. It is plain that the Romans had a sense of there being a certain malevolence in the ocean. Doubtless that is a feeling primitive in all men. We now The enquiry into the origin of the feel-can just detect it when actually beholding ing of the picturesque among moderns is a great storm, or even feel it for just a sometimes treated too trivially; it runs moment after hearing of a great sea disinto a large question. The happy grow-aster; but its early strength seems to ing tendency to describe a natural fact in have survived late in them. It brings itself, progressively omitting all the tradi-out very clearly the difference between tionary accompaniments of simile and the ancient and the modern feeling, personification, is the late gift of science to literature, and is priceless. Science, by dwelling on objects for its own purposes of acquiring a knowledge of their details, has been perpetually surprised by the discovery that details are always beautiful when seen sufficiently. In this way, we at last have come to know that things in their completeness are of themselves more lovely than imagination could ever conceive by dealing with them in part. The result is already showing itself in the enlargement of literature by the added department of a new poetic of the literal description of natural objects, though its progress must needs be slow. Absolutely new it, of course, could not be. In the remotest age it existed in the germ. The early poets were its prophets, some helping it with wonderful anticipations of later scientific disclosures of natural beauties. Our charge against Virgil is that, in his use of the sea, he has wholly failed in this bardic function -helping the advance of this literature of description not in the slightest. If personification was partially obligatory, he used it to the very full, as he also did simile, without betraying any perception that it was not the best, not the ultimate style.

One remark ought to be made for Virgil. There can be no doubt that the sea

when, in the face of the present belief that the sea is the commercial field for the union of distant peoples, we find Horace taking the very opposite view, saying that in vain has God in his wisdom separated land from land by the estranging ocean, if impious barks will bound across it (Ode 3, Lib. I.). The picture he and Virgil draw of merchant ships, in the world's future golden days, withdrawing from the sea, leaving its wide surface bare, shocks the modern imagination. It turns everything in our conception of the sea upside down. We scarcely can avoid a suspicion that both Virgil and Horace, in speaking of the sea, used a more antiquated feeling in reference to it than was actually current in their time. In the Augustan age, such Romans as were not writers of poetry scarcely could believe in the impiety of spreading a sail upon the waters. This must have been merely a literary tradition, and it contented Virgil; but, at any rate, the real feeling must have been one we can only very imperfectly understand, for the ocean grows ever more and more welcome to us-it has lost so much of its awful strangeness, its savage strength. Are there not "steam lanes" in the Atlantic, along which mighty steamers come and go nearly as punctually as if they were land omnibuses? Do not sails

crowd up from every corner of the hori- terests, and the Italians as a rule are zon? We are getting a little familiarity troubled with no scruples of conscience with it below its surface. The course of whatever as to the treatment which they its hot and cold currents, rushing like have bestowed on the Church. If they tremendous rivers through its depths, is reflect at all about it, it is to pique thempartly known. Its gulfs are no longer selves on what they think the extreme, and bottomless to us. We have opened de-perhaps foolish, generosity with which lighted eyes on its marine plants, on its countless inhabitants, vanishing away in myriads of harmless microscopic tribes. It is the latest opened treasure-house of science.

Those who may read these words, with the music of the sea actually sounding in their ears, and with the glory of its tossing waves before their eyes, will not need telling how much of its beauty is yet undescribed. But in the verbal mosaic in which, let us hope, the ocean will one day shine and foam, when the new poetic of real description has developed its language of direct epithet, there will not be a single Virgilian gift no, not so much as a word, a syllable.

From The Saturday Review.
ITALY.

they have treated the pope. As to the foreign policy of Italy, it is undeviating in its simplicity. It consists entirely in loving and courting and behaving well to every one when it is once recognized that Italy is to keep all she has got. And Italy is so lucky, and reaps so much benefit from having one simple line of policy, that something is always happening to remind the world of Italian success. In utter defiance of France, and in complete disregard of the engagements which France had exacted, Italy seized on Rome. Without Italy having to raise a finger or spend a penny, Germany took on herself the trouble of going on fighting until the impunity of Italy was assured. As a slight protest against the wrong-doing of Italy the Orénoque was stationed at Civita Vecchia. Now the Orénoque is recalled, and the various organs of French opinion, though all inclined to abuse their own Government, concur in admiring the tact and kindness with which Italy has graciously allowed the MacMahon Ministry to take its own time in paying this tribute to Italian ascendancy. Nor is

THE various Italian Ministries which succeed each other with somewhat inconvenient rapidity have no very great political differences to distinguish them, but each in turn has to encounter minor this all. France is now, like Mr. Cook's difficulties of a very embarrassing kind. tourists, going on a tour through Italy, The general policy of Italy is fixed, who-conducted personally by M. Thiers; and ever may be in office. The vast majority | M. Thiers, who for a dozen years was the of the nation is firmly bent on upholding persistent adversary of Italian unity, the unity which has been won at so great moves on from one Italian city to ana cost and in so surprising a manner, and other assuring Italy how truly he loves there is no opposition worth noticing to her, and how much he rejoices in her the form of government. A few mis-success; and all that the Ministerial guided zealots may get up an isolated critics of M. Thiers have to say is that movement in favour of a republic, and Italians ought not to love M. Thiers in Garibaldi may issue his fulminations and return exclusively, but should condescend decrees against his enemies after a to remember that Marshal MacMahon fashion which strangely resembles that earned his staff and his dukedom at Maadopted by the person whom of all others genta. Italy is like a naughty handsome he would least like to copy the pope. boy, and the French parties are like aunts But the reactionary party and the repub- who have scolded and rated the scapelican party, although they exist in Italy, grace for every fresh freak, but who, and are not without some resources and when they find that he has grown up and influence, have no hold on the general really come into his property, vow that body of electors; and although German they adored him from his cradle, and prounity rests in some ways on a surer foun- test that they were always meaning to dation than Italian unity, because it has give him endless sugarplums, only that much more military strength to support circumstances unfortunately checked it, yet there is less political division in their liberality. Italy than there is in Germany. The re- But although Italy has at present no ligious question is less troublesome, as it questions which touch her existence to touches temporal rather than spiritual in- 'disturb her, those who undertake to man

age her affairs have no slight difficulties | think it can be reduced, would nearly to encounter. There are two thorns con- reach a million sterling. Before long, stantly in their side. There is the ques- however, the expiration of existing Treation how Italy is to pay her way, and the ties of Commerce will give Italy the question how brigandage is to be put opportunity of making new arrangements down, and on each of these questions which, although conceived in the spirit there are endless controversies and dis- of Free-trade, will be beneficial to her agreements. Signor Minghetti is now at pocket; and if the taxes were better the head of affairs, and he has just ex- arranged, Italy could probably find anplained his views to his constituents at other million sterling. But then there is Legnago. His primary notion is that, as something more wanted. The Budget these are the two great questions for cannot be balanced if the country is to Italy, they should occupy the attention rush into new expenditure. The position of the country until they are satisfactorily taken up by Signor Minghetti is that, if disposed of. One thing at a time is the it is proposed to spend a frane more, it principle of conduct on which he insists. must be first shown where the franc is There are many abuses to be reformed, to come from. The Ministry which premany legislative provisions which are ceded that of Signor Minghetti fell benecessary if law and administration are to cause the Italian Parliament insisted on be what Italy would like to see them. Zeal- voting the expenditure of certain sums on ous Italians have their crotchets which a harbour, although the Government prothey are burning to see Parliament take tested that there was no money that up, and the Prime Minister does not at all could be applied to the purpose. The deny that many of these crotchets are friends of inconsiderate expenditure have very good crotchets in their way. But not gained much by opening the door of he asks his countrymen to agree with office to Signor Minghetti. He erects him that the time for taking them up has into a principle what his predecessors not yet come. As in England, when Sir insisted on under special circumstances. Robert Peel came into office and had to He announces that he will not listen to face the deficit caused by Whig finan- any proposal for new expenditure unless ciers, he would not allow any question to the advocates of this expenditure at the be discussed until the balance of the same time express their willingness to Budget had been satisfactorily restored, vote for some new tax which will supply so, now that Italy has even a more serious the requisite funds; and it will very seldeficit to lament, Signor Minghetti wishes dom happen that the hope of the popu. that the consideration of all minor re- larity to be gained by conferring a local forms should be postponed until Italian benefit or perpetrating a local job will finance is put on a sound footing. That not be outweighed by the fear of the this should be done, two things are es- odium attaching to a proposal to burden sential. In the first place, enough money still further the distressed taxpayer. must be raised by taxation to meet those Finance is the first subject that occuwants of the country which are absolutely pies the attention of a prudent Italian indispensable, and for this purpose taxes Minister, but brigandage is the second, must be wisely imposed and rigorously and as life is more valuable than money, collected. On the incidence of some of it may be almost said to be as important the most important taxes Parliamentary for Italy to put brigandage down as to Committees have already reported, or can put her finances in order. Simple brigbe instructed to report, and there is no andage is indeed not a very difficult thing want of diligence or ability in the re- to cope with. If it is only a few ruffians porters. What is needed is that the who carry off a traveller to get a ransom Italian Parliament and the constituencies paid for him, there is some chance that, should take to heart the lessons which as the country becomes better cultivated these reports teach, and be resolute in and the roads more frequented, the giving them effect. If this were done, ruffians may think it worth their while to Signor Minghetti is confident that Italy go into a quieter line of business. The would show itself indisputably solvent, police, too, may hope to catch the and that the gigantic evil of a depreciated offenders and bring them to justice. An currency might be successfully attacked. ecclesiastic has just been carried off at There is no doubt a deficit for the coming no great distance from Rome, and his financial year which, even if it is reduced family could not get him back until they as far as the most sanguine calculators had paid a large ransom. But the police