in any of the geological formations; and above all, that no sensible retardation has been observed in the orbits of any bodies of the solar system which traverse these meteoric spaces, even in the case of comets, unless in the single and doubtful case of one small comet (Encke's), which revolves in an orbit very close to the sun. It is an undoubted fact that even a large comet, in which, according to Mr. Lockyer's theory, the meteors must have been immensely numerous and closely congregated, had not mass enough perceptibly to affect the motions of Jupiter's satellites when entangled among them. But the crucial decision is to be sought, not so much in the quantity of these meteoric masses, as in their quality or modes of motion. Is it possible to account for the phenomena of the solar system which are explained by the nebular theory, by any mathematical result of the aggregations and collisions of meteoric atoms and streams of atoms, darting about in all directions in space, and casually coalescing and colliding? Or to come to closer quarters with the question, do the orbits and velocities of such of these meteors as are known to us, either in the form of comets or of their associated meteoric streams, correspond with Mr. Lockyer's theory, or are they such as to force us to conclude that they are the children and not the parents of the larger masses? This question has been admirably discussed in detail by Mr. Proctor and others, and the result certainly seems at present to be unfavourable to Mr. Lockyer's views. There can be no doubt that many, at any rate, of the comets and meteor streams revolve round the sun according to the law of gravity in orbits which would be impossible, either if they had been ejected from that body or captured from space. An orbit round the sun of given dimensions implies an initial velocity of given amount transverse to the centripetal force of gravity which draws it directly towards the sun. The only plausible explanation of the origin of such a transverse velocity was that of Schiaparelli, who suggested that the comets or meteors might have come in from space and been captured by the giant planets. But mathematical calculations have clearly shown that this is impossible, as the perturbation even of the largest planet could not have reduced the velocity sufficiently, and acting, as it must have done, unequally on the meteors spread out over such an enormous space, must have broken up and dispersed any meteoric aggregation instead of affecting its motion in the mass. Explosion from the sun could not have given the requisite transverse velocity, and bodies so ejected must either have passed off into space or fallen back on the sun's surface. There remains only Proctor's theory, that they are a sort of Krakatoa dust ejected from during their earlier sunlike stages, when they possessed a egree of explosive energy. This corresponds with the

the

8 which would vary within wide limits according to

the direction in which the explosion took place, and whether with or against the proper motion of the planet as regards the sun. Thus the earth moves round the sun with a velocity of eighteen miles per second, while an explosive velocity of eight miles per second would be sufficient to carry ejected matter beyond its sphere of attraction into that of the sun, so that the orbit of this matter might vary between that due to a velocity of ten and one of twenty-six miles per second. But in such cases the orbit would always preserve fixed relations to that of the ejecting planet, and the two orbits would intersect at given intervals, which seems to be the case as regards many of the known comets and meteor streams, both as regards the earth and the larger planets. These, however, are calculations which can only be made by accomplished mathematicians, and those who have only a general acquaintance with science must wait before finally deciding on Mr. Lockyer's theory, until it is seen whether such mathematical authorities do or do not abandon the old theories in favour of the new one.

In the meantime, whatever may be the ultimate fate of Mr. Lockyer's theory as an explanation of the cosmos, it must be admitted that he has advanced the boundaries of science by a considerable step, by furnishing fresh proofs of the identity of all matter, and important suggestions towards the conclusion to which we seem to be tending, that the seventy or more so-called ultimate elements of chemistry are in effect merely secondary elements, formed out of a few, possibly one primary element, by combinations only possible under conditions which exist elsewhere, but cannot be realized on our earth.

S. LAING.

THE WORKLESS, THE THRIFTLESS,

AND THE WORTHLESS.

BY THE AUTHOR OF "SOCIAL WRECKAGE."

IN

Na little book on our laws and their administration as affecting the poor, published a few years ago, I urged the pressing importance of so modifying those laws whilst the period of prosperity lasted, that, when a time of depression succeeded, the community might not be found unprepared to meet the distress and social disturbance which would certainly accompany it. That this warning has been justified by the events of the past three winters can hardly be denied, for not only in London, but in all our large towns, the cry of distress has been loud and deep, whilst riotous mobs have paraded our streets and large masses of the so-called unemployed have assembled to listen to the addresses of mob-orators urging to anarchy and pillage. Moreover, the suffering that exists among the deserving poor has been used by political factions to set at defiance the officers of the law, until in the metropolis it has been deemed necessary to call out the military for the preservation of the peace. These facts are alarming enough in themselves, but they assume a still more serious aspect when the comparatively mild character of the past depression is considered; for although it is perfectly true that during the last few years trade has been bad and little money has been made in commerce, yet the exports, measured by quantity and not by value, have not been seriously diminished, and the country has still been accumulating

wealth, as is shown by the income-tax returns and other evidences including the yearly increase in the funds of the savings-banks. During the greater part of this period bread has been selling at one penny per pound, and all other articles of food have been equally cheap; but, notwithstanding these mitigations of the hard times, the cry of distress has been loud and threatening, our statesmen and philanthropists have been at their wits' end to know how to meet it, and the most futile and foolish schemes have been broached, which even a cursory study of the past would have shown could only aggravate the evil. Some of these have been tried-large relief funds, which only pauperize the poor and enrich the impostor; soup kitchens and free dinners, which too often teach the struggling workman how much more pleasant and comfortable it is to live on alms than to seek for work. Thus we reject the experience of the past and the warnings of the experienced; thus we daub the wall with untempered mortar, and wonder that at the first storm it proves utterly insecure.

Although so much has been written on the subject of the unemployed, little practical result has been attained, and no scheme has yet been formulated adequate to solve the great problem-How the community may best meet the legitimate demands of the deserving poor reduced to want by circumstances over which they have no control, without, at the same time, encouraging improvidence and demoralizing the industrious. One cause of this failure appears to be the prevailing tendency, on the part of those who have sought to propound remedies, to concentrate their attention on certain aspects of the question, and practically to adopt the superficial view that the unemployed are persons out of work because there is no work for them to do. No view can be more fallacious, and before any adequate scheme can be devised for the mitigation of the condition of the unemployed, it must be fully realized that, as represented by the crowded meetings in London and elsewhere, these consist of distinct classes, who must by some means be separated, and each dealt with by an entirely different treatment, carried out with a persistent adherence to approved rules; and that temporary alleviations are not remedies, but generally, so to speak, a mere suppression for a time of the symptoms of the disease which renders it more deadly. As an example of this, we may refer to the experience of the Mansion House Fund of 1886; it appeared for a time to relieve the acuteness of the distress, but those who have watched its effects know that it has tended to make that chronic which was occasional. Perhaps in no instance is this truth more strikingly shown than in the provision of night refuges, with the laudable intention of preventing deserving homeless wanderers from being compelled to pass the night without shelter, but which have produced an increase in the vagrant class, one of the worst forms of demoralized humanity that can afflict a

community. The same remark applies to many other efforts of the benevolent to mitigate the suffering of the poor, made without adequate knowledge of the effects which experience has shown to be likely to follow. Just as the establishment of beer-shops, intended to stay the consumption of spirits and prevent drunkenness, in the end vastly increased both; or as the establishment of negro slavery, intended to mitigate human suffering, as witnessed in the laborious tasks imposed upon the American Indians, intensified it by introducing the horrors of the slave trade; so many of these well-intentioned schemes have increased the evil they were designed to remove.

In order, therefore, to obtain an adequate grasp of this important subject, it is necessary thoroughly to understand who the "unemployed "really are; then to examine into the cause of the late demonstrations of men demanding work and apparently starving in the midst of so wealthy a community; and lastly, to consider what remedies are most likely to prove sufficient to remove this social danger and disgrace. In answer to the question who and what these unemployed are, they can perhaps hardly be better described than by the words that stand at the head of this paper-namely: first, the men and women who desire work but cannot obtain it, the workless; secondly, the thriftless, which includes, in addition to those who are usually characterized by the word, the men and women who would work but are more or less incapable or inefficient; thirdly, those who hate work and will only do it under strong compulsion. It is not necessary to dwell long upon the best method of dealing with the first class, those who are both capable and willing to give fair work for fair pay. The exhaustive inquiry of the Mansion House Committee, on the condition of the poor, confirmed the general opinion of those most competent to judge, that although in a large community such as is found in London the number of these is in the aggregate considerable, yet they form a very small proportion of the so-called unemployed. The writer's own experience whilst working for some years on a local Charity Organization Committee accords with this general consensus of opinion; that probably not two per cent. of the destitute are persons of good character as well as average ability in their trades. It is not, of course, intended to imply that this number represents all competent workmen who from time to time are out of work, but the majority of these are members of trades unions or provident clubs, or else have saved money in better times; so that except to the extent above mentioned competent workmen do not swell the ranks of those who are commonly known as the unemployed. It would not be difficult to deal with these if they stood alone, but it is impossible in giving relief to separate them from the next class, which is the most numerous and the most disheartening to deal with, and which I have called the thriftless-those