also been observed near Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, by Israel C. Russell, up to 4,000 to 5,000 feet.

The Chaix Hills, though composed of soft, easily eroded strata, stand out in sharp ridges surmounted with irregular pyramids, indicative of immature sculpture; this indication of youth is also sustained by the fossils with which many of the strata are charged, which are of living marine species.

The most striking feature of these hills is that for a thickness of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet they are composed of stratified morainal material. As the beds are tilted northwards at an angle of 10 or 15 degrees, it would seem that the elevation was of a sharply differential nature.1

Still later Reginald A. Daly has described the occurrence of raised post-glacial shore-lines in Newfoundland and Labrador, ranging from 575 feet at St. John's to 250 feet at Nachvak. Furthermore, Mr. Daly gives a section between these two points showing in graphic form the differential bendings that have taken place along this uplift of eleven hundred miles of coast.

In his opinion, the pronounced warping of the highest shore-line is incompatible with the view

1 'Second Expedition to Mount St. Elias in 1891:' Thirteenth Annual Report of the Directors of the U.S. Geo. Survey (p. 24 of reprint).

In 'Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900,' what were considered to be elevated marine beaches were discovered at various altitudes from 200 to 1,700 feet, from which the authors (Alfred Brooks, Richardson, Collier, and Mendenhall) conclude that in comparatively recent times the western province was submerged to a depth of 1,000 feet or more. Photographs accompany the description. U.S. Geo. Survey Dept. of the Interior, p. 58.

that changes in the position of the level of the sea over great stretches of the earth's surface are produced solely by independent vertical movements of the surface of the ocean.'1

In Greenland, undoubted sea margins with marine shells of recent species occur up to 1,000 feet, and Colonel Feilden's observations go to prove that there has been a general movement of upheaval of the land which surrounds the North Pole, as previously pointed out by Sir Henry Howorth.2

Colonel H. W. Feilden, in a valuable series of papers on the Glacial Geology of Arctic Europe and its Islands,' shows that the marine elevated terraces of Norway extend northwards, and that the southern shore of the island of Arnö 'is fringed for miles by three great parallel terraces,' which he estimates as 50, 100, and 150 feet above sealevel; while at both sides of Varanger Fiord, which separates Norway from Russian territory, a wellknown series of terraces occurs.

The island of Kolguev, composed entirely of sand and clay, is in itself a striking evidence of elevation. In Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, and Spitzbergen raised beaches are frequent, and it is quite evident that a vast area to the north of Russia in Europe, including the bottom of the Arctic Sea, has been elevated in comparatively 'The Geology of the North-east Coast of Labrador,' Bul. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, vol. v. no. 5, p. 259.

1

2 Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1877, p. 483.

recent times. On the other hand, the existence of the Norwegian fiords and the islands already named is evidence of an earlier subsidence of a much greater vertical range. These evidences of subsidence and upheaval go side by side almost universally, and conclusively prove the existence of a mobility in the crust of the globe, independent of lateral pressure and mountain-making.1

Perhaps the most interesting information of these land movements has been due to the enthusiastic labour of M. Arctowski, who, as geologist of the Belgian Antarctic Expedition, landed at twenty places on either side of the Belgica Strait, separating the Palmer Archipelago from the mass of Graham Land, and found indications in the deep valleys running down from the land below the sea-level of a general subsidence, 'the whole of the district presenting clear evidence of being a submerged region.' Thus the evidences of land movement have been literally traced from Pole to Pole.2

Professor George Frederick Wright, in a paper read before the Geological Society of London on 'Recent Geological Changes in Northern and Central Asia,' the outcome of a journey in 1900-1901, says, 'The Loess region of Turkestan, and indeed the whole area from the Sea of Aral to the Black Sea, appears to have been recently elevated, in some places as much as 3,000 feet.'

1 See Q. J. G. S., vol. lii., 1896, pp. 721-41.

2 Nature, March 1901, p. 518.

On the other hand, the continuation of the rivervalleys as submarine valleys on the Pacific submarine slope,1 and similar phenomena at the mouth of the Mississippi and, as pointed out by Spencer, on the eastern seaboard of the United States, show that the land was at one period, in Pleistocene times, at a much greater elevation in relation to the sea than at present. Still further, Dr. Spencer has brought forward evidence of the existence of an Antillean continent in Pleistocene times which involves movements of a much more stupendous kind.2

In Africa, the valley of the Congo is continued seawards as a submarine valley to a profound depth; and I fully believe that a careful examination of any continent or island on the globe would yield evidences of fluctuations of level to a greater or lesser extent.

Dr. Reasch, in Naturen,' draws attention to the changes of level that have taken place in Iceland in recent geological times. Shallow-water molluscs are found side by side with deep-water forms. 'It was remarkable to dredge up from depths of 500 to 1,300 fathoms Yoldia arctica, which now lives at Spitzbergen and in the Kara

1 To show the universality of these movements of elevation and depression, Dr. Andrew Lawson considers that there are good evidences of an uplift of the entire coast of California from San Francisco to San Diego, in post-Pliocene times, to an extent of from 800 to 1,500 feet (The Post-Pliocene Diastrophism of the Coast of Southern California,' Bul. of the University of California, vol. i. pp. 115-60).

2 Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent,' Bul. of the Geo. Soc. of America, vol. vi. pp. 103- 40 (1895).

Sea at depths of from 5 to 100 fathoms.' Reaschu infers a sinking of the sea bottom of not less than 2,500 metres.1

Brögger considers that the occurrence of higharctic fossil shallow-water mollusca of the Yoldia fauna at great depths in the Norwegian Sea 'is explained by the hypothesis that the sea bottom, during the time of the greatest ice-sheet of Europe, must have been uplifted at least 2,600 metres higher than it is at present.' 2 He also gives evidence of many changes of level having taken place during the glacial and post-glacial periods, and of a sinking of the land to about 240 metres, south of Mjösen.3

1 Naturen, Dec. 13, 1900.

2 Norges geologiske undersögelse, No. 31, p. 682.

3 Dr. Hinde, in an excellent review of Brögger's Monograph on the Late Glacial and Post-Glacial Changes of Level in the Christiania Region,' in the Geological Magazine for July 1902, says: One of the most striking phenomena of the period of greatest submergence in the Christiania Fiord is the well-known coral reef so carefully described by M. Sars, consisting of masses of the deep-water coral Lophohelia prolifera, Linn., which, in a dead but well-preserved condition, occur at Dröbak, south of Christiania, covering the sea bottom at levels of 60 metres below the surface, and they are also found over an area of about 100 square kilometres to a height of 30 m. above the sea. Asso. ciated with the coral is the giant form of Lima excavata, Fabr. Both the coral and shell are now found living in the Norwegian fiords at depths of 100-300 fathoms, and it is probable that they existed in the Christiania Fiord, at a depth not less than 150 metres, when the climate was not very different from the present and the margin of the land ice yet stood before Mjösen and Randsfiord.'