Imatges de pàgina
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to increase the number of the miraculous performances fabulously imputed to him. We have, however, the following imperfect summary in the commentary on his life. Upon the day of the translation of his relics, a boy, whose limbs had been contracted from his youth, was made whole. A woman who was imprisoned and bound in fetters was set free. A paralytic person was healed; a noble matron and three other women who were blind, were restored to sight. Twenty-five men afflicted with various diseases, were perfectly restored in one day; six and thirty sick persons coming from different places were cured within three days; and one hundred and twenty four within fourteen."

The virtue ascribed to his relics was even claimed for his statue; and further, the following legend was put forth to shew that the miraculous power of the saint was not confined to those places wherein his relics were deposited and his form exhibited.

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A certain woman," says the veracious historian, 'sleeping in a house in the city of Winchester, with her door open, a wolf took her out of bed and carried her into a wood, where with dreadful howling he called other wolves to him. The woman weak from fasting and age knew not what to do, but turned herself to her prayers, invoked divine assistance and called loudly on St. Swithun. No sooner did the wolf hear this same name than he fell asleep; the woman immediately withdrew herself from him, and the animal awaking pursued her with his companions, but was incapable of hurting her whom the mercy of God and the holy bishop had undertaken to set free."

How the vulgar notion that St. Swithun exercised an influence over the weather originated it is difficult to say, for the writers who professed to give his authentic history, make no mention of the circumstance. The legend, however, whatever be its origin, is as follows: The clergy considering it to be disgraceful that the body of the saint whose miracles were as innumerable as the sand upon the sea shore, or as the drops in the ocean, should lie in the open church-yard, resolved to remove it into the choir. This was to have been done with a procession of great solemnity upon the 15th of July. The saint, however, by no means approved of this officious interference,—and in order to prevent such a violation of the orders given in his life-time, miraculously caused it to rain so heavily on that day, and for the following forty days, as to render the attempt impossible, and it was consequently abandoned as heretical and blasphemous.

The circumstances attending this reputed miraculous interference of St. Swithun, shews the degree of credit and authority to which monkish tradition is entitled. Legend contradicts legend; and the popular influence of the more recent one swallows up without reserve a whole host of predecessors. To believe both is impossible: to believe either unwarrantable: and if the cause of truth did not compel us to reject a guide so fallacious as tradition here appears, we must do so as the friends of virtue and religion. The history of a wise and exemplary prelate has been defaced, its salutary influence upon society destroyed; and a record which was designed to be an example of life and instruction in manners is converted into a worse than profitless superstition.

ON BREAD.

is added to the fresh dough, to make it swell, it is said to be leavened; when nothing of this sort is added, it is said to be unleavened.

The President de Goguet has endeavoured, with his usual sagacity and learning, to trace the successive steps by which it is probable men were led to discover the art of making bread; but nothing positive is known on the subject. It is certain, however, from the statements in the sacred writings, that the use of unleavened bread was common in the days of Abraham; and that leavened bread was used in the time of Moses, for he prohibits eating the Paschal lamb with such bread. The Greeks affirmed that Pan had instructed them in the art of making bread; but they no doubt were indebted for this art, as well as for their knowledge of agriculture, to the Egyptians and Phoenicians, who had early settled in their country. The method of grinding corn by hand-mills was practised in Egypt and Greece from a very remote epoch; but for a lengthened period the Romans had no other method of making flour, than by beating roasted corn in mortars. The Macedonian war helped to make the Romans acquainted with the arts and refinements of Greece; and Pliny mentions, that public bakers were then, for the first time, established in Rome. The conquests of the Romans diffused, amongst many other useful discoveries, a knowledge of the art of preparing bread, as practised in Rome, through the whole south of Europe.

The use of yeast in the raising of bread, seems, however, to have been practised by the Germans and Gauls before it was practised by the Romans; the latter, like the Greeks, having leavened their bread by intermixing the fresh dough with that which had hecome stale. The Roman practice seems to have superseded that which was previously in use in France and Spain; for the art of raising bread by an admixture of yeast was not practised in France in modern times till towards the end of the seventeenth century. It deserves to be mentioned, that though the bread made in this way was decidedly superior to that previously in use, it was declared, by the faculty of medicine in Paris, to be prejudicial to health; and the use of yeast was prohibited under the severest penalties! Luckily, however, the taste of the public concurring with the interest of the bakers, proved too powerful for these absurd regulations, which fell gradually into disuse; and yeast has long been, almost everywhere, used in preference to any thing else in the manufacture of bread, to the wholesomeness and excellence of which it has not a little contributed.

The species of bread in common use in a country depends partly on the taste of the inhabitants, but more on the sort of grain suitable for its soil. But the superiority of wheat to all other farinaceous plants in the manufacture of bread is so very great, that wherever it is easily and successfully cultivated, wheaten bread is used to the nearly total exclusion of most others. Where, however, the soil or climate is less favourable to its growth, rye, oats, &c. are used in its stead. A very great change for the better has, in this respect, taken place in Great Britain within the last century. In the reign of Henry VIII, the gentry had wheat sufficient for their own tables, but their household and poor neighbours were usually obliged to content themselves with rye, barley, and oats.

In 1596, rye bread and oatmeal formed a considerable part of the diet of servants even in great [Abridged from M'CULLOCH's Dictionary of Commerce.] families, in the southern counties. Barley bread is BREAD, the principal article in the food of most stated in the grant of a monopoly by Charles I. in civilised nations, consists of a paste or dough formed 1626, to be the usual food of the ordinary sort of of the flour or meal of different sorts of grain mixed | people. At the revolution, the wheat produced in with water, and baked. When stale dough or yeast England and Wales was estimated to amount to

This is parti

1,750,000 quarters. Mr. Charles Smith, the very | vate families to bake their own bread. well informed author of the Tracts on the Corn Trade, cularly the case in Kent, and in some parts of Lanoriginally published in 1758, states, that in his time cashire. In 1804, there was not a single public baker wheat had become much more generally the food of in Manchester; and their number is still very limited. the common people than it had been in 1689; but

he adds, that notwithstanding this increase, some very

WICKLIFFE'S CHAIR.

intelligent inquirers were of opinion, that even then THE chair here represented is that in which Wickliffe, not more than half the people of England fed on wheat. the great precursor of the Reformation, expired.* It Mr. Smith's own estimate, which is very carefully is still preserved in Lutterworth Church, together drawn up, is a little higher; for taking the population with the pulpit from which he was accustomed to of England and Wales, in 1760, at 6,000,000, he preach, a piece of his cloak, and an oak table which supposed that belonged to him.

3,750,000 were consumers of wheat.

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739,000

888,000

623,000

barley.

rye.
oats.

Mr. Smith further supposed that they individually consumed, the first class, 1 quarter of wheat; the second, 1 quarter and 3 bushels of barley; the third, 1 quarter and 1 bushel of rye; and the fourth, 2 quarters and 7 bushels of oats.

About the middle of last century, hardly any wheat was used in the northern counties of England. In Cumberland, the principal families used only a small quantity about Christmas. The crust of the goosepie, with which almost every table in the county is then supplied, was, at the period referred to, almost uniformly made of barley meal.

Every one knows how inapplicable these statements are to the condition of the people of England at the Had Lutterworth nothing else to distinguish it, its present time. Loaf-bread is now universally made name would be indelibly recorded in history as having use of in towns and villages, and almost universally had for its rector this eminent man-eminent not only in the country. Barley is no longer used, except in as the great forerunner of the Reformation, but as a the distilleries and in brewing; oats are employed only devout and sincere Christian. "The imperfect jusin the feeding of horses; and the consumption of rye tice," says Mr. Le Bas, in his splendid life of this bread is comparatively inconsiderable. The produce great man, "hitherto rendered to the memory of of the wheat crops has been, at the very least, trebled Wickliffe, as a man of deep religious affections, may, since 1760. And if to this immense increase in the in part, be the effect of that peculiar interest which supply of wheat, we add the still more extraordinary attaches to his character as the antagonist of a corrupt increase in the supply of butchers' meat, the fact of hierarchy. We have been accustomed to regard him very signal improvement having taken place in the chiefly as the scourge of imposture-the ponderous - condition of the population, in respect of food, will hammer that smote the brazen idolatry of his age.... be obvious. The Reformer of Christian morals has been forgotten in the Reformer of papal abuse: and thus his memory has been left open to the suggestion that he is to be honored as the antagonist of popery, not as the advocate of Christ,-fitted to join with politicians, and with princes in their resistance to encroachment, rather than to band (as he ought to be joined) with saints and confessors in bearing testimony to the truth as it is in Jesus."

a

"Admirable," says Fuller, "that a hare so often hunted with so many packs of dogs should die at last, quietly sitting in his form." No. I. page 6, col. 2, line 7, of the article on the figure 9, for (viz. 45) read

ERRATUM.

But great as has been the improvement in the condition of the people of England since 1760, it is but trifling compared to the improvement that has taken place, since the same period, in the condition of the people of Scotland. At the middle of last century, Scotch agriculture was in the most depressed state; the tenants were destitute alike of capital and skill; green crops were almost wholly unknown; and the quantity of wheat that was raised was quite inconsiderable. A field of eight acres sown with this grain, in the vicinity of Edinburgh, in 1727, was reckoned so great a curiosity that it excited the attention of the whole neighbourhood! But even so late as the Ame-(viz. 405.) This error occurs only in a few of the early copies. rican war, the wheat raised in the Lothians and Ber- THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE wickshire did not exceed a third part of what is now grown in them; and taking the whole country at an average, it will be a moderate estimate, to say that the cultivation of wheat has increased in a tenfold proporportion since 1780. At that period no loaf-bread was to be met with in the country places and villages of Scotland; oat cakes and barley bannocks being universally made use of. But at present the case is widely different. The upper and also the middle and lower classes in towns and villages use only wheaten bread, and even in farm-houses it is very extensively consumed. There is, at this moment, hardly a village to be met with, however limited its extent, that has not a public baker.

In many parts of England it is the custom for pri

AND EDUCATION,

In compliance with the recommendation contained in the Report read at the Special General Meeting of the SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, held on the 21st Series of Works on Education, History, Biography, Natural of May, have made arrangements for the publication of a History, the Elements of the Sciences, &c. particulars of which will speedily be announced.

LONDON:

JOHN WILLIAM PARKER, 445, (WEST) STRAND.
Sold by all Booksellers and Newsvenders in the Kingdom.
Hawkers and Dealers in Periodical Publications supplied on wholesale terms by
W. S. ORR, Paternoster-Row; G. BERGER, Holywell-st., London;
And by the Publisher's Agents in all the principal places
throughout the Country.

C. RICHARDS, Printer, 100, St. Martin's Lane, Charing Cross

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EDUCATION

1832.

PRICE ONE PENNY.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION, APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

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Copted, by permission, from an Original Drawing, by a Native Artist, in the Museum of the Royal Asiatic Society.

THE sketch of the legend of Jagganátha in our first | driven out by the founder of a new dynasty, who disnumber, is curious as affording a specimen of the covered the place where Sri Jeo was buried, cut down. sort of fable which the credulous Hindoos receive the tree that overshadowed the spot, and found the as religious truth, and as shewing the origin and image incased in a stone vault, much decayed and early progress of this monstrous and revolting idol- disfigured. His next care was to find out the officiatatry, but it is worth little with regard to real history. ing priests, descended from those who formerly fled In the temple of Jagganátha there is, however, a from Pooree, and having discovered some of them, he work preserved, claiming the title of a history of the consulted with them how the worship of Jagganátha Kings, stated to have been commenced more than six might be revived in all its ancient splendour. The centuries back, and to have been regularly kept up. formation of a new image being considered an indisThis work is noticed by Mr. Stirling in his valuable pensable preliminary, the priests sought out in the essay on the Geography, Statistics, and History of woods a tree with all the requisite marks indicated by Orissa, in Vol. 15 of the Asiatic Researches, which is their books, as fitting it for the honour of being made the source from which our account is chiefly taken. into a god. They brought it to the Rajah, who, with In the ancient chronicles mention is made of the worship of Jagganátha at a very early period: for on the invasion of the kingdom of Orissa by a foreign power, in the fourth century of the Christian era, the Rajah, seized with a panic, took the image of Sri Jeo out of his temple, lodged it in a covered cart, with all its jewels and utensils, and fled to the most remote town on his western frontier. The strangers not finding the prince, plundered the town and temple, and The history above referred to, which becomes more committed great excesses every where. The Rajah's credible, as it advances to more modern dates, states alarms increased on receiving intelligence of the pro- the erection of the present edifices to have taken place ceedings of the invaders, and he buried the image un-in the reign of Rajah Anang Bhim Deo, who ascended der the ground, planted a tree over it, and fled to the the throne A.D. 1174. That monarch having incurred wilds. In the succeeding century the invaders were the guilt of killing a Brahmin, resolved, in expiation VOL. I. 3

pious zeal, clothed both it and the old image in rich robes, and conducted them to Pooree in great state. A new temple was erected on the site of the old one, which was found to be much dilapidated, and overwhelmed with sand. At the same time, the necessary officers were appointed, feasts and festivals established, and the whole country around Pooree assigned as endowments for the maintenance of the temple.

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most severely, and gradually sank before the superior energy of the Moguls. The Rajahs retired to the part of Khoorda best protected by natural difficulties of access, where they built a fort and palace, and where they were found settled in 1803. During these contests in or about Pooree, the images so much venerated by the one party, and abhorred by the other, were twice or thrice carried away and concealed, until the times appeared favourable for again setting them

warfare was at last set at rest by the Mogul government establishing the tax on pilgrims, which is said at one time to have yielded to them a revenue of 90,000l. Under these circumstances the zeal of the Mahomedan rulers yielded gradually to considerations of interest.

nations to which it has given rise. In the mean time we wish to state fairly, the way in which the control both of the pilgrims and the revenues arising from them has come into the hands of the British Government in India.

Under the Mahomedan and Mahratta rule, which preceded our's, it was customary for the supreme authority of the state to receive the revenues of large districts from the chiefs or great proprietors, who contracted for the payment of all the dues and taxes payable, on whatever account, by the inhabitants of their districts, not only for land rents but for all the various imposts of their system of finances.

of his offence, to construct numerous temples; and he | the whole, however, the native princes suffered the likewise expended large sums on works of public utility, as tanks, wells, and bridges. He filled the whole of the sacred land of Jagganátha with temples, the principal edifice being erected by his orders at an expense of from three to four hundred thousand pounds; the date of its completion is stated to be A.D. 1196. He enlarged the establishment, added fifteen Brahmins and fifteen Sudra priests, and gave fresh splendour to the worship by the institution of numerous feasts. In reward for the munificence of the monarch, the reign-upon their thrones in the temples. This religious ing prince has always held the honourable office of sweeper to the idol. This service is still performed by the hereditary Rajah of Khoordah, with a splendid broom, on the occasion of the principal annual feast, called the chariot festival.' An engraving of the grand procession of the cars in which the idols are carried on this occasion, is given on the preceding page. Such was the origin of the tax on pilgrims at JagThe glories of the royal house of Orissa ended about ganátha. In a future number we intend to give an the middle of the 16th century. An irruption of account of the present state of this chief seat of HinMahomedans took place about 1558, headed by Kala-doo superstition, and to notice the shocking abomipahar, the general of the Afghan king of Bengal, a relentless destroyer of Hindoo temples and images, who finally overthrew the independent sovereignty of Orissa. On this occasion the god of Pooree was again saved from destruction by hasty removal in a covered cart to a pit on the borders of the Chilka lake, where he was buried. Kalapahar was not, however, to be defrauded of so rich a prize; and having traced out the place of concealment, he dug up Sri Jeo and carried him off on an elephant as far as the Ganges. He there collected a large pile of wood, and setting fire to it, threw the idol on the burning heap. A bystander, however, snatching the image from the flames, threw it into the river, whence it was rescued by a faithful votary, who kept it in secret till the Emperor Akbar visited Orissa. That prince is said to have been impressed with so much reverence and admiration for this holy country, its temples, and Bramins, that he determined to interfere little in its affairs, and to leave a large share of authority in the hands of its native princes. The Rajah, thus reinstated in authority, bestowed his first care on the recovery of the relics of Jagganátha, which having accomplished, a new image was made according to the rules in the holy book, and again set up in the temple on a propitious day with much pomp and ceremony. About the end of the 16th century the kingdom was divided into two portions, of which that assigned to the Rajahship of Khoorda was esteemed the most important, as it included Pooree; and the king retained the hereditary office of sweeper in the temple of Jagganátha. Down to the present moment, though all political power of the Rajah of Khoorda is at an end, all deeds drawn out in the language of the country bear the date of the succession of the nominally reigning prince of that house, and are prefaced with a recital of his titles, which are in the pompous style adopted many centuries ago: "The illustrious hero, the lord of elephants, sovereign of Bengal, supreme monarch over the rulers of "the tribes of Ootkala, a divinity terrible to the wicked, "the protector of the grants enjoyed by the pious, king of kings, like the lord of a thousand arms in "the field of battle-a comet to the martial race!"

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Under the Mogul government, Orissa was torn by constant wars, insurrections, and internal commotions. The Moguls were actuated by peculiar zeal against the idolatrous worship of Jagganátha, and lost no opportunity of annoying the Hindoos in the performance of their devotions at his temple, and many bloody encounters were the consequence between the two nations, in which success was often doubtful. On

In the collection of many ill-defined and arbitrary taxes, the greatest oppression was exercised over the helpless inhabitants, who had, moreover, no courts of justice to which they could appeal for redress. The British Government resolved, when the right of receiving the revenues devolved on them, to remove so fertile a cause of injustice and oppression, and leaving to the superior landlords and chiefs the collection only of their land rents, they forbad them to collect the other various imposts, and granted to the chiefs a compensation for what they had so resumed. On a revision of the nature of these imposts, some that were unobjectionable and necessary, such as customs on merchandize, &c. they continued to collect under definite rules and laws enacted for the purpose, and others which were burthensome to the people they altogether abolished. It was under the operation of this system that the pilgrim tax came to be collected by the British Government of the East India Company. It could not have been left in the hands of a native chief, consistently with the principles of the system generally adopted; a system which afforded the greatest relief to the native population from the unlimited exactions of their chiefs. Whether the pilgrim tax should have been among those altogether abolished or not, is a question well deserving the best consideration of a christian nation. It is however but bare justice to say, that whatever may be the guilt of continuing such a system, it does not rest upon the East India Company alone. The nation at large must bear the responsibility of having sanctioned it. The laws which regulate the collection of the pilgrim tax were passed in 1806 and 1809, and were, like other laws passed by our Indian Governments, regularly laid before Parliament, and published; and, not having been set aside or objected to, they obtained the authority of established law, under the sanction of Parliament, and are thus adopted as the acts of the British nation,

[To be continued.]

INFANT EDUCATION.

THE writer of this notice had occasion lately to visit the Infant School which has for some time been established at Exeter; and the beautiful display of moral and intellectual cultivation, exhibited by a set of little creatures, whose average age did not seem to exceed four or five years, directed his attention to Mr. Wilderspin's work on the subject.* Its perusal affords the most ample information respecting the nature and progress of a system which appears destined to be of immeasurable benefit to society; and the author's views are illustrated by such a variety of pleasing, interesting, and amusing anecdotes, that his book is really one of the most entertaining, as well as instructive, of its kind, we have ever met with.

It is generally known, that the system of Infant Schools originated chiefly with Mr. Wilderspin. The systems of Bell and Lancaster were, indeed, in operation; but, in them, the lowest age was seven; and Mr. Wilderspin's attention was attracted to the neglect and improper treatment of children under that age. His first essay, accordingly, to form an infant school, was limited to children between the ages of two and seven. His account of his first attempt is very amusing.

The cap suspended on a pole was, to Wilderspin, what the falling leaves were to Newton. The prin. ciple which he deduced from that incident, became the foundation of his whole system. For the history of his experiments, and their successful results,—and of the gradual introduction of infant schools, not only over England, Scotland, and Ireland, but in different parts of our colonies, we must refer to the work itself. The narrative will be found equally striking and gratifying. The system early received the patronage of his late Majesty, by whose munificence the children belonging to the school established at Brighton continued to be annually clothed to the time of his death. In her present Majesty, as might be expected from her kind and amiable disposition, it finds a supporter. The author has been invited by many enlightened clergymen to form schools in their parishes. The Bishop of London was an early supporter of the system, and established one of the best schools now existing, in the parish of Bishopsgate. Several other bishops have warmly recommended them to the attention of the clergy of their dioceses; they are, consequently, rapidly extending in every direction, and their consequences to the character of the next and succeeding generations will, in all probability, be such as the present have not even a conception of.

thirty prisoners committed to Reading gaol, and tried
at the Special commission in 1831, twenty-five only
could write; thirty-seven could read only; and
seventy-six could neither write nor read; and yet one
hundred and twenty were under forty years
of
age-
varying from eighteen to thirty-five.
Of the thirty
prisoners tried at Abingdon, six could read and write;
eleven could read a little; the remainder were wholly
uneducated. In Buckinghamshire, of the seventy-nine
prisoners convicted at Aylesbury, only thirty could
read and write. In Hampshire, of three hundred and
thirty-two committed for trial at Winchester, one hun-
dred and five could neither read nor write; and nearly
the whole number were destitute of the rudiments of
knowledge. In Kent, about half the prisoners com-
mitted to Maidstone gaol were unable to read or write;
and nearly the whole were totally ignorant of the na-
ture and obligations of religion. In Sussex, of fifty
prisoners put on trial at Lewes, thirteen only could
read and write; twelve could read a little; only one
could read well!"

"As soon as the mothers had left the premises, I attempted to engage the attention of their offspring. Did the bulk of the population consist of persons I shall never forget the effect. A few, who had been whose minds, from their most tender years, were thus previously at a dame-school, sat quietly; but the rest, powerfully impressed with the principles of religion missing their parents, crowded about the door. One and morals, how different would be their state, both little fellow, finding he could not open it, set up a in respect to character and happiness, from that in loud cry of "Mammy! Mammy!" and in raising this which we now find them! The connexion between delightful sound all the rest simultaneously joined. ignorance and crime is strikingly exhibited by the folMy wife, who, though reluctant at first, had deter-lowing statement. "In Berkshire, of one hundred and mined, on my accepting the situation, to give me her utmost aid, tried with myself to calm the tumult; but our efforts were utterly in vain. The paroxysm of sorrow increased instead of subsiding; and so intolerable did it become, that she could endure it no longer, and left the room; and at length, exhausted by effort, anxiety, and noise, I was compelled to follow her example, leaving my unfortunate pupils in one dense mass, crying, yelling, and kicking against the door! I will not attempt to describe my feelings; but, ruminating on what I then considered egregious | folly, in supposing that any two persons could manage so large a number of infants, I was struck by the sight of a cap of my wife's, adorned with a coloured ribbon, lying on the table; and observing from the window a clothes-prop, it occurred that I might put the cap upon it, return to the school, and try the effect. The confusion when I entered was tremendous; but on raising the pole, surmounted by the cap, all the children, to my great satisfaction, were instantly silent; and when any hapless wight seemed disposed to renew the noise, a few shakes of the prop restored tranquillity, and perhaps produced a laugh. The same thing, however, will not do long; the charms of this wonderful instrument, therefore, soon vanished, and there would have been a sad relapse, but for the marchings, gambols, and antics, I found it necessary to adopt, and which at last brought the hour of twelve, to my greater joy than can easily be conceived. yearly sending out from the Sessional School mulRevolving these circumstances, I felt that this memo- titudes of persons who become shoemakers and rable morning had not passed in vain. I had, in fact, tailors, and are daily receiving from their masters found the clew. It was now evident that the senses the most gratifying assurances of the manner in of the children must be engaged; that the great secret which they conduct themselves. Their industry and of training them was to descend to their level, and skill in their various occupations seem to be in direct become a child; and that the error had been to ex-proportion to their success in school; and those who pect in infancy what is only the product of after years."

.

*Early Discipline Illustrated by Samuel Wilderspin. Westley and Davis, 1 vol. small 8vo.

The prejudice, that education unfits the working classes for the duties which belong to their rank in life, once so prevalent, is rapidly passing away. The most ample experience is daily shewing its utter fallacy. "We are ourselves," says Mr. Wood of Edinburgh, (whose inestimable labours are well known to all who take any interest in the course of education)

have been fortunate enough to get our best scholars,
have been known to inquire whether we have any of
the like description to give them.
Our greatest pro-
ficients are still content to 'dwell among their own

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