But besides those who are simply knights, there are knights who are members of particular orders or classes.

These orders are found in most of the kingdoms of modern Europe, and have had generally for their founder a sovereign prince. Such are the order of the Golden Fleece, instituted by Philip, duke of Burgundy; the order of the Holy Ghost, instituted by Henry the Third of France; the order of St. Michael, instituted by Louis the Eleventh of France. Of the foreign orders, which are very numerous, the most recent account will be found in a work entitled 'A Concise Account of the Several Orders of Knighthood, and other marks of honourable distinction,' by Nicholas Carlisle, 8vo, 1839. Foreign orders cannot be worn by British subjects without the special consent of the sovereign. Each of these orders has its peculiar badge, ribbons, and other decorations of the person. The British orders are the Garter and the Bath, (which are treated of under the heads of GARTER, KNIGHTS OF THE, and BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE), the Thistle, and St. Patrick.

The order of the Thistle was instituted in 1540, by James V. of Scotland; but it fell into decay, till in the reign of Queen Anne, 1703, it was revived. The number of knights was limited to thirteen, but in 1827 the number was increased to sixteen, all of whom are nobility of Scotland.

The order of St. Patrick was instituted in 1783. The knights were fifteen, increased in 1833 to twenty-two, who are peers of Ireland. There are also knights of the Guelphic order, and knights of the Ionian order of Saint Michael and Saint George. Carlisle mentions an African order of the Palm and Alligator, instituted by the kings of Soudan. KNIGHT OF THE SHIRE is the designation given to the representatives in parliament of English counties, as distinguished from such cities and towns as are counties of themselves (which are seldom, if ever, called shires), and the representatives of which, as well as the members for other cities and towns, are denominated citizens or burgesses. Though the knights of the shire always sat with the citizens and burgesses as jointly representing the third estate of the realm, as well during the time that the three estates, viz. the spiritualty, the lords temporal, and the commons, sat together, as since, we find that grants were occasionally made by the knights to be levied on the counties, whilst separate grants were made by the citizens and burgesses to be levied upon the cities and boroughs. (Rot. Parl.') The wages payable to knights of the shire for their attendance in parliament, including a reasonable time for their going up and coming down, were four shillings a day, being double what was received by citizens and burgesses. At the close of every session the king, in dismissing them to their homes, informed them that they might sue out writs for their wages, upon which each knight separately obtained a writ out of Chancery directed to the sheriff mentioning the number of days and the sum to be paid, and commanding the sheriff to levy the amount. Upon this the sheriff, in a public county court, divided the burden amongst the different hundreds and townships, and issued process to levy the amount, which, to the extent of the money levied, he paid over to the knight. The lands of the clergy, as well regular as secular, were exempted from contributing towards these expenses, because the clergy formed a distinct estate, and were represented in parliament by their prelates and the procuratores cleri, although the latter were, as Lord Coke expresses it, voiceless assistants only. All lay fees within the county were liable to contribute, except lands belonging to the lords and their men. The lords insisted that this exemption extended to every freeholder who held land within their baronies, seigniories, or manors, alleging that they served in parliament at their own expense for themselves and their tenants. And such was undoubtedly the practice; as by the Parliament Roll it appears that the commons frequently petitioned that the exemption should be confined to such lands as the lords kept in their own hands and occupied by their farmers or by their bond-tenants, or villeins. These requests however were met either by a simple refusal or by a statement by the king that he did not mean to lessen the liberties of the lords. If however a lord purchased land which had previously been contributory to the knight's wages, the liability continued. Freehold lands, held either by knight's service or in common socage, were liable to this burden, but customary tenures in ancient demesne and tenures in burgage were exempt. In the county of Kent no socage land was contributable, the whole burden being thrown upon those who held knight's fees, an anomaly against which the commons preferred many ineffectual petitions. Knights of the shire, and also their choosers, were formerly required to be persons either resident or having a household in the county. This regulation, though confirmed by several statutes, had fallen into neglect long before it was formally abrogated in both its branches by 14 George III., c. 58. ('Rot. Parl.")

As to the qualifications of electors, and the disqualifications from sitting as knights of the shire, see PARLIAMENT.

KNIGHT'S FEE was land of sufficient extent and value to support the dignity of a knight, granted by the king, or some inferior lord, upon the condition that the grantee and his heirs should either perform the service of a knight to the grantor and his heirs, or find some other person to do such service. The quantity of land capable of supporting a knight naturally varied according to its quality and situation; and even the amount of income sufficient to meet the charges of a knight would fluctuate according to time and place. It is not therefore surprising that we find a knight's fee sometimes described as consisting

of 800 acres, sometimes of 680; sometimes estimated at 157. sometimes at 207., and in later times at 401. per annum. If the owner of a knight's fee deprived himself of the possession of part of his land by subinfeudation he remained liable to the feudal burden attached to the tenure of the whole.

KNIGHT'S SERVICE, TENURE BY, otherwise called tenure in chivalry, or per service de chivaler, per servitium militare, was, from the times immediately succeeding the Norman Conquest in the 11th century to the period of the civil war in the 17th, considered the first and the most important, as it was also the most general, mode of holding land in England. The land thus held was said to consist of so many knight's fees, feoda militis, that is, so many portions of land capable of supporting the dignity of a knight. [KNIGHT'S FEE.] He who held an entire knight's fee was bound by his tenure, when called upon so to do, to follow his lord to the wars (under certain restrictions as to the place at which the service was to be performed), and to remain with him forty days in every year, or to send some other knight duly qualified to perform the services. From the owner of half a knight's fee twenty days' attendance only could be required; and the obligation attaching to the quarter of a knight's fee was satisfied by the performance of ten days' service. On the other hand, a person holding several knight's fees, whether forming one or several estates, was bound to furnish a knight in respect of each.

Besides this permanent liability to military service, the tenant was subject to other occasional burdens. The principal of these are the following incidental services:-First, Aids, or payments which the vassal holding by knight's service was bound to make for ransoming his lord's person if taken prisoner; for making the lord's eldest son a knight; and for marrying, that is, providing a marriage portion for the lord's eldest daughter. Secondly, Reliefs, being a payment made by the heir in the nature of a composition for leave to enter upon land descending to him after he had attained his full age. Thirdly, Primer Seisin, or the right of the crown, where the lands were held of the king, to a year's profit of land descending to an heir who was of full age at the time of the death of his ancestor. Fourthly, Wardship, or the right to the custody of the body and lands of an heir to whom the land had descended during his minority, the king or other lord in such case taking the profits of the land during the minority to his own use, or selling the wardship to a stranger if he thought proper. Fifthly, Marriage, or a right in the lord, where the land descended to an heir within age, to tender to him or her a wife or a husband; and if the heir refused a match without disparagement, that is, without disparity of rank, crime, or bodily infirmity, the lord became entitled to hold the land as a security for payment by the heir of the amount for which the lord had sold or which he might have obtained for the marriage. Sixthly, Fines upon Alienation. To these Blackstone adds a seventh, Escheat, or the returning of the land to the lord upon the felony or forfeiture of the tenant, or his dying without heirs. [ESCHEAT.] But escheat is not peculiar to tenure by knight's service.

This system, which Blackstone justly characterises as a complicated and extensive slavery, fell to the ground during the existence of the Commonwealth; and the abolition of this species of tenure was confirmed upon the Restoration, as it would have been absurd and dangerous to attempt a renewal of such oppressive burdens. Accordingly, the 12th Car. II., c. 24, takes away tenure by knight's service, whether the lands are held of the crown or of a subject, together with all its oppressive fruits and peculiar consequences, and converts every such tenure into free and common socage. [SOCAGE.] Nothing can be more comprehensive than the terms of this act; besides generally abolishing tenure by knight's service, and its consequences, it descends into particulars, with a redundancy of words, which appear to indicate an extreme anxiety to extirpate completely all the evils which the legislature had under contemplation. The statute, after taking away the court of wards and liveries, enumerates wardships, liveries, primer seisins or ousterlemains, values and forfeitures of marriages, and fines, seisures, and pardons for alienation, and sweeps away the whole. But rents certain, heriots [HERIOT], suit of court and other services incident to common socage, and fealty [DISTRESS], and also fines for alienation due by the customs of particular manors, are preserved. Reliefs for lands, of which the tenure is converted into common socage, are saved in cases where a quit-rent is also payable.

KOENLITE. A fossil hydrocarbon resembling paraffin.
KORAN. [MOHAMMED, in BIOG. DIV.]

KOUMISS. Kumiss. A kind of spirit distilled by the Arabs from mare's inilk which has undergone fermentation in leathern bags. The alcohol it contains is derived from sugar of milk.

KOUSSO, or COSSO. Under these names are comprehended the flowers and flower-stalks of a tree, native of Abyssinia, long celebrated among the natives for its anthelmintic properties. The earliest notice of it among European writers was by Leutholf, in 1681 ( Hist. Æthiopica,' lib. I., c. ix, sect. 31); but the first representation of it occurs in Bruce's Travels' (vol. v., p. 73, of London edition, 1790). By him it was proposed to call the tree Banksia Abyssinica, a generic name untenable as having been previously appropriated to a New Holland genus. Hagenia, applied to it by Lamarck, is for the same reason untenable. The universally admitted name is Brayera anthelmintica, Kunth (D. C. Prod.' ii., p. 588), [NAT. HIST. DIV.]; also, Richard,

Tentamen Flora Abyssinicæ,' pl. 48. Dr. Beke says that the tree in the Amharic language is called kosso, and in that of Tigre hhàbbe ; and these same names are respectively applied to the tape-worm, against which this drug is esteemed a remedy. It flourishes best on the tableland in the north-eastern part of Abyssinia, at the height of six or seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. It is a rosaceous plant, though by Theodor d'Abbadie ascribed to the Malvacea. The flowers and flower-stalks are collected before the seeds are quite ripe, whilst still a number of florets remain unchanged. They are suspended in the sun to dry, and if not required for immediate use, are deposited in a jar. The dried portions are sent first to Egypt, thence to Constantinople, and Europe; perhaps some come to Aden.

The chemical analysis yields a fatty oil, wax, bitter acrid resin, tasteless resin, two kinds of tannin, ashes, gum-sugar (Wittstein). Martin gives also a crystalline substance termed kwoseine; there is also a little volatile oil. Owing to the high price adulteration is much practised, chiefly with pomegranate bark. To avoid this the kouso should be purchased in the entire, not powdered, state. About half an ounce is the dose for an adult. This is to be infused in half a pint of tepid water for a quarter of an hour, a little lemon-juice may be added, and about a third swallowed; then after an hour another third, finally the remainder, with lemon-juice. This seems to check the disposition to vomiting caused by the nauseous taste and odour. At the end of four hours, a dose of castor-oil or infusion of senna may be given. By the action of this last tape-worms, either entire or in part, mostly dead, are brought away. The chief recommendation of kousso over other anthelmintics seems to be that under its influence the head as well as the joints of the parasite are brought away. Without this be effected any amendment can only be temporary. The fullest account of kousso, in English, is by Dr. Pereira, in Journal of Pharm. Society,' vol. x. p. 15, now incorporated in Pereira's 'Mat. Med.' [ANTHELMINTICS.] KRAME'RIA TRIANDRA, or RHATANY, is a small low-lying undershrub, growing on the dry projecting parts of the mountains of Peru, near Huanaco, &c. The native name is Rhatanhia. The root, which is the officinal part, is from four to eight inches long, and from the size of a writing quill to two inches thick, with knotty but not strong ramifications, and is very variable in shape. The bark is thin, uneven, and easily separates from the woody part. The bark bears a larger proportion to the woody part in the young than in the old ramifications, and contains more astringent matter. The young ones are to be preferred. The root is heavy, and devoid of odour; but the taste, especially of the bark, is strongly astringent and bitter, yet not disagreeable. Iodine turns it black. According to the analysis of Gmelin, it contains much tannin, with saccharine and mucilaginous matter, woody fibre, and salts. According to Peschier, it contains krameric acid. This root, from which, in Peru, an extract is formed, is a mild, easily assimilated, astringent medicine, possessed of great power in passive bloody or mucous discharges; and also in weakness of the digestive organs, muscular debility, and even in intermittent and putrid fevers. The powder forms, along with charcoal, an excellent toothpowder; and an infusion is used as a gargle and wash. The chief use of the extract imported from South America, is said to be the adulteration of port wine.

KRAMERIC ACID. A peculiar acid of unknown composition, said to exist in the extract of Rhatany (Krameria triandria). It is a nonvolatile, difficultly crystallisable solid.

KREASOTE. [CREOSOTE.]

KREATINE. Synonymous with creatine. [CREATINE.] KREATININE. [CREATININE.] KRESYLIC ACID. Synonymous with hydrate of cresyl. [CRESYL.] KRISHNA. [VISHNU.] KRONOS, one of the most ancient of the Greek gods, the youngest of the Titans, and father of Zeus. Kronos was the son of Uranus and Gæa. Uranus, who was ruler of the world, out of fear or hatred of his children, especially of the Cyclopes, cast them into Tartarus and kept them imprisoned there. In revenge Gæa incited the Titans to rebel against their father, and gave to Kronos a sickle (äpπn) of adamant, with which he deprived his father of virility. Uranus being deposed, Kronos was raised to his throne, and the Cyclopes liberated; but they were again cast by Kronos into Tartarus. Kronos now married his sister Rhea, and had by her Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus; but it having been foretold him by Uranus that he should be deposed by one of his children, he swallowed all of them but Zeus as soon as they were born. On the birth of Zeus, Rhea gave Kronos a stone wrapped in a cloth, which he swallowed, believing it to be his newly born child. Rhea concealed her son in a cave in Crete, where he passed the first years of his life. When Zeus grew up, Kronos, in order to secure his throne, called the Titans to his aid; but Zeus, by the counsel of Thetis, administered a potion to Kronos, which caused him to bring up the children he had swallowed. Zeus, with his brothers and sisters, now attacked the Titans, who, after a contest which lasted

ten years, and which was known to the Greeks as the Titanomachia, were eventually conquered, and Kronos was dethroned.

In Greek art Kronos is often represented with a veil covering the back of his head; and almost always with the harpe, or sickle, in his hand. Sometimes he is figured enthroned, with Rhea offering him the stone; sometimes he is naked, at others wrapped in voluminous drapery.

Greek and Roman writers regarded the Greek Kronos and the Roman Saturnus as the same deity. By recent writers their identity has been doubted. Their identity has been maintained with strong arguments by Buttmann, Mythologus,' ii. 28, &c.; but as strenuously opposed by Hartung, 'Die Relig. der Röm.' ii. 123, &c., who considers the two divinities as quite distinct, and Saturnus as an ancient national divinity of the Italians. Certain it is that there are few if any points of resemblance between their attributes: the chief coincidence is that each was regarded as the most ancient deity of his country. Both the deities are figured in ancient works of art with a sickle in their hand; but the sickle of Kronos had reference to the harpe given him by his mother Gæa, while that of Saturnus was typical of his protection of husbandry.

Saturnus was one of the principal divinities of the ancient Italians. He was considered to be the protector of agriculture, and of all civilisation arising from it. His name probably contains the same element as the verb sero (sa), whence he was considered as the protecting divinity of all that was sown and planted, and as the giver of plenty. The Italian legends represented him as having come from abroad to the shores of Italy, in the reign of Janus, by whom he was hospitably received. Notwithstanding this, Saturnus was always considered as the first king of the Aborigines, probably because agriculture and civilisation in Italy dated from his reign. (Virg., Aen.,' viii. 319; Aurel. Vict., 'De Orig. Gent. Rom.,' c. 1,' &c.) He was said to have established a settlement on the Capitoline Hill, which from this circumstance was called the Saturnian Hill, and the settlement itself Saturnia. He now began to teach the Italians the art of cultivating the fields, and led them from their savage state to the peaceful occupations of civilised life, so that the whole land of Italy was called, after him, Saturnia, or the land of fruit. In agriculture he is said to have taught his subjects the use of manure (stercus), from which he derived the surnames of Stercutus, Stercilinus, and Stercenius. (Macrob., 'Sat.,' i. 7.) His rule was so just and mild, that the age in which he reigned was afterwards described as the golden age of Italy. His wife, called Ops, was in aftertimes worshipped as the goddess of plenty. After the death of Saturnus, or rather after his disappearance from the world, he was raised to the rank of a god, an altar was erected to him on the spot which was afterwards called the Forum, and a temple near the foot of the Capitoline. Concerning his worship at Rome, see SATURNALIA.

KUMISS. [KOUMISS.]

KUTEERA, or KATIRA, a kind of gum, considered in India by the native practitioners of medicine to be a good substitute for Tragacanth. Indeed, they consider it to be the true Tragacanth, which is described by Avicenna under the name kuseera in the original Arabic, while the plant which yields it is named Ketad, and its gum Dragacanthum. The Kuteera gum a good deal resembles Tragacanth in appearance, but does not in other respects correspond with that gum according to the experiments which have been made on it in Europe. It has been described by Martius under the name Kuteera ( Pharmakognosie,' p. 338), which Guibourt says is the same as his Gomme de Bassora; it is intermediate between tragacanth and bassorin -when pure, it is almost entirely bassorin. Like the latter, it swells very much in water, and has a faint vinegar-like odour. Dr. Roxburgh states that Sterculia urens " yields a gum not unlike Tragacanth, and has been sent to London as such; but the artists, who use that gum, did not find it answer." He however mentions that the water in which he kept the green branches for examination became thick, like a clear glutinous jelly, while the bark was exceedingly astringent. (Fl. Ind.,' p. 111.) Dr. Royle, on the contrary, states that the gum called Kuteera, and used as a substitute for Tragacanth in north-western India, is yielded by Cochlospermum Gossypium, and he possesses some of the same kind of gum collected by Mr. Malcolmson in Central India, accompanied with specimens of the tree which yielded it. This is identically the above-named species, which is so highly ornamental on the lower mountains of India, with its large and rich-coloured yellow flowers. Martius considers that it may be the produce of Acacia leucophlæa, Willd. or of a Simaruba, the latter conjecture a very improbable source. This gum is used in dyeing. Mr. Simmonds says that Kuteera and Kutira are two distinct gums; the former from Sterculia urens, the latter from Cochlospermum Gossypium. (Simmonds' Dictionary of Trade Products.') KYANOL. [ANILINE.] KYNURENIC ACID. CYANURENIC ACID.

[CYNURENIC ACID. Improperly inserted as

ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. V.

F

scarlet dyeing. The trade in lac has of late years become of some importance.

LACE MANUFACTURE. All the varieties of lace are easily grouped into two classes, according as they are made by hand or by machine.

countries.

Hand or Pillow Lace. This fabric differs essentially in form and appearance from the products of an ordinary loom. Until about three centuries ago, lace was made by the needle on a piece of fine woven material, the threads of which were drawn aside to form holes or meshes, held in position by a few stitches. In 1561 Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, devised a mode of twisting threads round pins, so as to form a knotted or netted fabric; this was the real origin of pillow lace, the making of which gradually extended to various European The implements used by hand-lace-makers are few in number, and inartificial in character. They consist of a pillow or cushion, a series of bobbins or small cylindrical pieces of wood round which the thread or silk employed is wound, and pins which are stuck into the cushion and around which the threads are twisted. The pattern of the lace is determined by the disposition of the pins; and this is regulated by holes pierced in a piece of parchment which is laid upon the cushion. It is not possible to give in writing an intelligible description of the processes of lace-making by means of these implements; but it will be understood that the effect is produced by the twisting together of the threads upon the bobbins, and their being woven among and around the pins. The pattern depends partly upon the order of arrangement preserved in these twistings and weavings, and partly upon the introduction of a thicker thread, called gymp, which is used for the formation of figures, flowers, and other ornaments. The finest pillow-lace is made on the continent. It is known in most cases by the names of the towns in which the fabrication is chiefly carried on. The most valuable is Brussels, of which there are two kinds, Brussels-ground and Wire-ground. Brussels-ground has a hexagon mesh, formed by plaiting and twisting four threads of flax to a perpendicular thread; whereas Wire-ground consists of silk, the meshes partly straight and partly arched, and the pattern, worked separately, being set on by a needle. Mechlin lace has a hexagon mesh formed of three flax threads twisted and plaited to a perpendicular thread; the pattern being worked in the net. Valenciennes lace has an irregular hexagon mesh, formed of two threads partly twisted and plaited at the top of the mesh; the pattern is worked on the net. Lisle lace has a diamond-shaped mesh, formed of two threads plaited to a perpendicular. Alençon blond has a hexagon mesh of two threads; it is one of the poorest of pillow-laces. Alençon point has two threads twisted round a perpendicular, with octagon and square meshes alternately.

The best Brussels lace excels all others in delicate fineness, and in elegance and variety of design. It is made of flax grown near Hal and at Rebecque; and the spinning is performed in darkened rooms, with a beam of light admitted only upon the work through a small aperture. The best specimens are produced by the firms of Tardent-Poilet, and Ducpetiaux, of Brussels. In former days, when Mechlin and Brussels lace often descended as heir-looms from mothers to daughters, the manufacture was confined to lace from the finest thread that could be prepared from flax; and neither time nor expense was spared in that preparation. There is now, however, a great deal of cotton worked up in the Belgian lace of medium and inferior quality. In 1856-7-8, Belgium exported nearly as much cotton lace as flax and silk lace, about a value of 100,000l. of each, chiefly to France. This cotton-lace, however, is mostly of the character of machine-made bobbin-net; for real pillow-lace is seldom made of other materials than flax or silk. Besides the description above given, of the different numbers of threads and forms of mesh, the kinds of foreign lace present other diversities, which are being influenced a good deal at the present day by the machine-made net of Nottingham. Formerly the ground for Brussels lace was made in strips from one to three inches wide, which were afterwards joined with such admirable ingenuity as to render the line of junction imperceptible. But the slowness of the process rendered the product very costly; trimming-lace of four inches in width often brought ten guineas a yard, and veils were from twenty to a hundred guineas each. Now, however, the beautiful net made by machine at Nottingham is more and more used as a ground in Belgium; the flowers or designs being made on the pillow, and afterwards attached to the ground by the needle. This appliqué lace is now largely made, and is gradually superseding the real Brussels point-insomuch that the old specimens are acquiring the antiquarian value which connoisseurs attach to old pictures and old china, depending quite as much on the rarity as on the excellence. Mechlin lace is all made in one piece, without joining; and its peculiarity consists in a plait-thread surrounding the flowers, so as to give the appearance of embroidery. Valenciennes lace, since about 1835, has been more largely made at Ypres than at the town whose name it bears; the dealers now purchase the handiwork of at least 20,000 persons in and around Ypres. In France it is supposed that 200,000 females are employed in pillow-lace making, earning on an average about a penny an hour. Not only flax and silk, but cotton, wool, and gold and silver thread, are often worked up by them into lace; cotton is increasing in use, relatively to flax. Caen and Bayeux excel in silk-lace piece goods, such as veils, scarfs, berthes,

mantles, robes, and shawls; Chantilly in the more elaborate and costly kinds of silk-lace; Mirecourt in the elegance of designs for very light and open lace in flax-thread; Alençon in the costly fineness of the flaxthread used for making the Alençon point; and Puy in the cheapness of the lace made by 40,000 or 50,000 workers scattered in the neighbouring departments.

In England, pillow-lace making is supposed to have been introduced by some refugees from Flanders, about 1626, in or near Buckinghamshire; and for a long time that county maintained a fair rivalry with France and Flanders. In the counties of Buckingham and Bedford the cottagers are largely employed in this branch of industry. In 1800 the number so employed was estimated at 130,000; but the Nottingham machine-lace has since proved a formidable competitor. The kind called Honiton-lace is made by placing a perforated pattern upon a pillow, and working the thread round pins in the same way as other pillow-lace; but the difference is this, that Honiton-lace only consists of flowers and devices, which are afterwards sewn on to net made either by hand or by machine. Seven or eight thousand women and girls are employed in the south-eastern part of Devonshire making Honiton-lace; and as much as two hundred guineas has been given for a dress of this material. In the Midland counties the pillow-lace makers have had an increased demand for black-iace, thereby in part compensating them for the loss occassioned in other ways. British point, made near London, is an imitation of Brussels and Honiton-lace. Limerick-lace is somewhat similar in character. This branch of industry was founded in 1829, by Mr. Charles Walker, who settled at Limerick, leased a large building, took over with him several laceworkers from England, and taught the art to Irish peasant girls; the pupils were quick in learning and clever in manipulation, and a manufacture has been established, which has greatly benefited the town and neighbourhood. There are now many firms engaged in the trade, one of which employs 500 or 600 hands; the earnings vary from 3s. to 88. per week. Tambour-lace, made at Coggeshall and other places, is a sort of medium between lace and embroidery.

Machine-lace or Net.-The production of light cross-woven goods, previous to the extraordinary development of the bobbin-net manufacture at Nottingham, was carried on only to a limited extent. Net was the generic name for these goods; and according as slight deviations were made in the mode of crossing the threads, so were distinctive names given to the material produced; such as whip-net, mail-net, patent-net, drop-net, spider-net, Paris-net, balloon-net, &c. All these varieties were produced at the loom, with warp-threads stretched horizontally, and weft-threads thrown across by means of a shuttle; and the difference between them depended on the manner in which the warp-threads were made to cross one another, and in which the weft-thread was thrown.

In 1758 Mr. Strutt's machine for Derby-rib hosiery, or lace-work ankles and insteps to stockings, was the first approach towards a machine for lace-making. Morris's eyelet-hole machine, in 1763, by which open-work mitts and gloves were made, was a still nearer approach. Crane's Vandyck stocking-web machine, in 1768, produced flowered and spider nets; and Else and Harvey's pin machine, about the same time, was the foundation for the machines ever since used in France and Austria for making tulle and other kinds of silk net. Frost's point machine, in 1777, consisted of a fine gauze stocking frame which, by a few delicate changes, was made to produce a perfect web of lace, in hexagonal looped meshes-all weft, without any warp threads. This was soon superseded by another which manufactured what was termed point-net, invented by Lindley, and afterwards improved by Taylor and Flint. The point-net became so highly approved, that there were no fewer than a thousand machines at work at the beginning of the present century. Next succeeded Dawson's warp-machine, which produced warp-net in successful compe tition with the point-net; there was warp as well as weft, and the fabric was made to serve both for hosiery and for lace. Still however the net produced did not afford a good imitation of the bobbin-lace or pillow-lace; and the Nottingham manufacturers threw out every inducement for the development of a machine which should produce such an imitation. At length, in 1809, Mr. John Heathcoat, a stockingweaver of Loughborough, availing himself of an ingenious principle involved in a machine for making fishing-nets, invented a few years before by Robert Brown, of Nottingham, produced and patented the bobbin-net machine, one of the triumphs of modern ingenuity. From this time a new field of industry became opened, into which capital and skill rapidly entered. The traverse-warp machine of Brown, the straight-bolt machine of Morley, the pusher-machine of Mart and Clark, the circular-bolt machine of Morley, and the lever-machine of Leavers, were successive improvements on Heathcoat's bobbin-net machine, involving its main principle, but working it out more effectually. In all of these the warp is beamed. At first it required fifty movements to make one mesh; these have now been reduced to six. No less than 40,000 meshes can be made in a minute.

The main points of difference between the bobbin-net machine and the common loom may be thus stated. In the former the warp-threads are vertical; in the latter they are horizontal. In the former the weft is wound on a brass bobbin so thin as to pass between the adjacent threads of the warp; in the latter it is contained in a shuttle an inch or more in width. In the former the transit of the weft-thread, while

passing between the warp, is at right angles to the plane of the web; in the latter it is parallel with that plane. In the former the successive meshes or intersections are driven up close to those before made, by a series of pointed wires catching in the loops; in the latter they are driven up by the lay or batten. In the former there are sometimes as many as three thousand bobbins or weft-carrying implements to one machine; in the latter there are seldom more than one or two shuttles. In the former each bobbin twists its weft-thread round a warp-thread by a series of oscillatory movements like those of a pendulum; in the latter the twisting is effected rather by the movements

which fig. 1 shows roughly how threads may be twisted to form meshes; while figs. 2 and 3 show two kinds as actually produced.

Fig. 2.-Rectangular Meshes.

The activity to which the invention of the bobbin-net machine gave rise was quite extraordinary, and the profits accruing to the various inventors were at first very large. The productions of the machine superseded the older fabrics by the extraordinary cheapness at which they were made; so that bobbin-net, resembling that for which, in 1809, five guineas a yard were given, is furnished in 1860 for sixpence. [COTTON MANUFACTURE.]

From certain statistical details which Mr. Felkin, of Nottingham, the leading authority on this subject, furnished to the Factory Commissioners about the year 1833, it appears that at that time the quantity of cotton used annually in England for bobbin-net was about 2,387,000 lbs., value about 200,000l.; that this was made into thirty million yards of net, value nearly two millions sterling; that 160,000 persons were employed in spinning, doubling, weaving, mending,

pearling, finishing, and embroidering the net; that the fixed and floating capital invested in the bobbin-net manufacture reached as high as two millions sterling; and that there were from four to five thousand bobbin-net machines then in England. Some of these machines produced net twenty quarters or five yards in width. Many of them now have as many as 4500 cards with the Jacquard apparatus [JACQUARD APPARATUS]; and it may with truth be said, that such a machine, with its three or four thousand delicately-constructed brass bobbins, and provided with a Jacquard apparatus, is one of the most exquisite pieces of mechanism which our manufacturers can exhibit.

The hand-workers of the Midland Counties rose in violence against Mr. Heathcoat and his machines; and he went to live at Tiverton, in Devonshire, to be free from interruption. Tiverton, with off-shoots at Barnstaple and Chard, has become the head-quarters for a particular