exceeding two years; and if a male, to be once, twice, or thrice publicly or privately whipped (if the court shall so think fit) in addition to such imprisonment. The act does not extend to a person who shall have claimed to be the father of an illegitimate child, or to have any right to the possession of such a child, on account of his getting possession of such child, or taking it out of the possession of the child's mother, or other person who has the lawful charge of it. The Irish act (10 Geo. IV., c. 34) is in precisely similar terms. (Kerr's Blackstone and Russell on Crimes by Greaves.) As to the conveying away of heiresses and young women, see ABDUCTION. KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF. The principal disease to which the kidneys are liable is that which gives rise to the formation of calculi. [CALCULUS.] Sometimes the stone is retained in the pelvis of the kidney, where, by continued depositions, it may increase till it completely fills the pelvis and calyces; but more frequently it passes through the ureters into the bladder, producing in its passage violent Epasmodic pain in the loins, sickness and nausea, hæmorrhage, &c. This affection is the most common cause of inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis), from which abscess and other morbid alterations may result. An affection of the kidneys, having very definite symptoms, and exhibiting uniformity of structural change, was first pointed out by Dr. Bright of Guy's Hospital, and is generally called after him. This disease is also called Albuminuria and granular disease of the kidney; the first on account of its diagnostic symptom, albumen in the urine, the second on account of the morbid condition presented by the kidney. This formidable disease presents several stages or varieties, and some discussion has taken place as to whether the symptom of albumen in the urine may not occur in several distinct morbid conditions of the kidney. There is no doubt that albumen may be found in the urine in even functional derangements of the kidney; but the term Bright's Disease is very conveniently applied to all those forms of structural change in the kidney which are accompanied with albuminous urine. The great symptoms accompanying this disease vary according to the intensity of the disease and the condition of the patient. One of the first symptoms to which the physician's attention is usually drawn, is the presence of dropsy. This may occur in the skin or in any of the cavities of the body. It is frequently noticed in the face; and in all varieties of this disease an effusion of fluid is observed underneath the conjunctiva, producing the appearance of a watery eye. In addition to dropsical effusions, inflammatory affections of the mucous and serous membranes are very common accompaniments of Bright's Disease. The heart also is frequently affected, and pericarditis and endocarditis are observed. Affections of the brain are also not unfrequently present, especially in the more severe cases arising from the poisoned condition of the blood. In all cases of this disease, the urine contains albumen. This is easily detected either by coagulating the albumen by heat or nitric acid. The specific gravity of the urine is also decreased, being sometimes as low as 1.010, whilst healthy urine has a specific gravity of 1.020. It contains less urea than healthy urine. Under the microscope it also presents appearances indicative of the nature of the disease. These appearances consist of casts of the minute tubes of the kidneys, formed by substances produced in various stages of the disease. They are thus classified by Dr. Bennett: 1. Exudative casts, consisting of the coagulated exudation or fibrin which is poured into the tube during the inflammatory stage. 2. Desquamative casts, consisting of masses of the epithelium lining the tubes, and occurring in all stages of the disease. 3. Fatty casts, consisting of patches of epithelium as in the last, but which have undergone a fatty transformation by the accumulation of a greater or less number of fatty granules in its cells. 4. Waxy casts, presenting an exceedingly diaphanous and structureless substance. They are frequently associated with the two last. Dr. Bright originally described three stages of this disease, but later observers have recognised six. 1. The catarrhal form, in which the kidneys are enlarged, and contain an increased quantity of blood. In this stage only a small quantity of urine is passed, containing the exudative and disquamative casts. 2. In this stage the kidney is enlarged to nearly double its size and is white and granular in its appearance. The tubes of the kidney are obliterated by the inflammatory deposit. The urine is very albuminous, and of light specific gravity. 3. The kidney presents a mottled appearance. It is probably a transition from the first to the second stage. 4. In this stage the kidney is large, dense, and white. The tissues of the kidney have become charged. The urine is scanty, of low specific gravity, and defective in urea and other excretory matters. 5. In this stage the kidney is hard, granular, and contracted. The kidney is smaller than in health, the surface is uneven and puckered, the tunic adherent. There is no deposit in the tubes, but fibrous matter has been deposited in the tissues of the kidney, and the tubes are strangulated. The urine may not contain albumen. Its specific gravity is sometimes as low as 1.005. 6. This stage has been called the 'coarse kidney.' The organ is large and dark. The specific gravity of the urine is high, and it is loaded with urates. The presence of fatty matter in the casts of the kidneys may occur in any of these stages, and does not appear to exist as a separate form of the disease. The cause of this disease is anything which will unduly excite the action of the kidney. Thus it comes on as the result of spirit drinking, which powerfully excites the action of the kidneys. Exposure to cold and diminution of the action of the skin will also produce it. It comes on frequently after scarlatina, when the skin is highly susceptible of any diminution of temperature. The treatment must be active in the early stages. Purgatives may be given and blood abstracted locally, and the febrile symptoms treated accordingly. Mercury is not found beneficial. When chronic, diaphoretics and diuretics are both admissible. Amongst the former, Dover's powder and warm baths, and the latter, bitartrate of potash and digitalis. The patient should be protected from cold; a warm climate is serviceable; and a nutritious but not stimulating diet, with fresh air and exercise, are desirable. The name of Dr. Addison, physician to Guy's Hospital, has been connected with a diseased condition of the system, which is made apparent by a discoloration of the skin. Hence this disease is also called Bronzed Skin.' The existence of this discoloured skin has long been known as a symptom of certain cachectic states of the system; but Dr. Addison was the first to point out that this state of the skin generally existed in connection with a diseased condition of the supra-renal capsules. These bodies belong to the class of ductless glands, and till the time of Dr. Addison's researches upon bronzed skin appeared, little was known of their uses and functions in the human body. The following conclusions with regard to these bodies have been arrived at by Dr. Harley as the result of his experiments:1. The supra-renal capsules are not solely foetal organs. 2. They are not absolutely essential to life. 3. The removal of the right is generally more fatal than the left. 4. That convulsions do not necessarily follow their removal. 5. The absence of their function is attended neither by great emaciation nor debility. 6. If death follows an experiment, it occurs as the result of injuring neighbouring parts. 7. Absence of the supra-renal bodies is not proved to have any special effect in arresting the transformation of hæmatin, or in increasing the formation of blood crystals. 8. The suppression of the supra-renal capsular function is not attended by an increased deposit of pigment in the skin or its appendages. 9. The problem of the connection of the bronzed skin and suprarenal capsular disease is more likely to be solved in the dead-house than in the physiological laboratory. These conclusions were chiefly arrived at by experiments on rats, but they would seem to indicate that the connection between the bronzed skin and supra-renal capsules is not clearly made out. The distinguishing features of the disease to which the name bronzed skin has been given, are general languor and debility, great feebleness of the heart's action, irritability of the stomach, a peculiar change of colour of the skin, and these symptoms usually occurring in connection with a diseased condition of the supra-renal capsules. The general symptoms are in fact those of anemia, or cases in which the blood is imperfectly developed. Dr. Addison says of this discoloration of the skin, that it usually increases with the advance of the disease. "The anæmia, languor, failure of appetite, and feebleness of the heart become aggravated; a darkish streak usually appears upon the commissure of the lips; the body wastes, but without the extreme emaciation and dry harsh condition of the surface so commonly observed in ordinary malignant diseases; the pulse becomes smaller and weaker, and without any special complaint of pain or uneasiness, the patient at length gradually sinks and expires. In one case, which may be said to have been acute in its development as well as rapid in its course, and in which both capsules were found universally diseased after death, the mottled or checkered discoloration was very manifest, the anæmic condition strongly marked, and the sickness and vomiting urgent; but the pulse, instead of being small and feeble as usual, was large, soft, extremely compressible, and jerking on the slightest exertion or emotion, and the patient speedily died." (Addison.) Although the connection between the state of the skin and the disease of the capsules was exhibited in all Dr. Addison's original cases, many exceptions have been recorded. Cases have occurred in which extensive disease of the supra-renal capsules has occurred without any bronzed skin, and cases of bronzed skin have been seen where no disease of the supra-renal capsules could be detected after death. Dr Harley, in the paper before referred to, concludes:— 1. That bronzed skin may exist without the supra-renal capsules being diseased. 2. That complete degeneration or total absence of the supra-renal capsules may occur without any bronzing of the skin. 3. That bronzed skin may be associated with a variety of differently marked conditions of the system, among which a prominent one is disease of the supra-renal capsules. 4. That bronzed skin may be present without any derangement of the other functions of the body being observed. ('British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review,' No. 42, 1848.) Dr. Harley is of opinion that the general symptoms of this disease are produced by a "diseased state of the solar plexus per se, or by irritation of the ganglionic system of nerves, caused by the close proximity and intimate connection of diseased supra-renal capsules." The blood has been examined by the microscope in some of these cases, and found to present an increased quantity of the white blood cells, as observed in the disease known as Leucocythemia. [BLOOD, DISEASES OF.] The microscopic character of the skin has been carefully examined in this disease, and it has been found to present the same appearance as observed in the skin of the black man. The pigmentary matter of the skin was found to be increased, and existed in larger quantities in the under than in the upper layers of the epidermis. The treatment of this disease is not affected by our knowledge of its supposed cause. The remedies which would be applicable to bloodless and depressed conditions of the system, should be used here. Tonics, nutritious diet, fresh air, and the means resorted to for restoring health in anæmia and leucocythemia may be had recourse to here. The prognosis in this disease is unfavourable, although cases are reported in which recovery has taken place. Suppression of urine may be the ultimate result of obstruction from calculi in the ureters, or it may occur as an idiopathic disease. It is a condition of great danger, for low delirium and a comatose sleepy state very often supervene on it, and soon terminate fatally. Long and often repeated attacks of retention of urine from obstruction produce dilatation of the ureters and pelvis, which sometimes acquire an enormous size. There may result from the same cause a gradual absorption of the substance of the kidney, till in an advanced stage there is found nothing but a thin sac containing urine in a single cavity, or in a number of separate pouches. The kidneys are also subject, in common with other organs, to the deposition of various morbid substances, as cancer, fungus, hæmatodes, melanosis, tubercle, &c. But the diagnosis of all the chronic affections of this organ is extremely obscure, the principal indications of each being the same, viz., the dull heavy pain in the loins, dropsy, and sometimes hæmaturia. KIN. [DESCENT; INTESTACY.] KING. The primary use of this word is to denote a person in whom is vested the higher executive functions in an independent state, together with a share, more or less limited, of the sovereign power. The state may consist of a vast assemblage of persons, like the French or the Spanish nation, or the British people, in which several nations are included; or it may be small, like the Danes, or like one of the states while in England there were seven states independent of each other; yet if the chief executive functions are vested in some one person who has also a share in the sovereign power, the idea represented by the word king seems to be complete. It is even used for those chiefs of savage tribes who are a state only in a certain loose and colloquial sense of the term. It signifies nothing whether the power of such a person be limited only by his own conscience and will, or whether his power be limited by certain immemorial usages and written laws, or in any other way; still such a person is a king. Nor does it signify whether he succeed to the throne, the seat on which he sits when in the exercise of his royal authority, by descent and inheritance on the death of his predecessor, just as the eldest son of a peer succeeds to his father's rank and title on the death of the parent, or is elected to fill the office by some council or body of persons selected out of the nation he is to govern, or by the suffrages of the whole nation. Thus there was a king of Poland who was an elected king; a king of England who succeeded by hereditary right. Still, in countries where the kingly office is hereditary, some form has always been gone through on the accession of a new king, in which there was a recognition on the part of the people of his right, a claim | from them that he should pledge himself to the performance of certain duties, and generally a religious ceremony performed, in which anointing him with oil and placing a crown upon his head were conspicuous acts. By this last act is symbolised his supremacy; and by the anointing a certain sacredness is thrown around his person. These kinds of ceremonies, we believe, are found in all countries in which the sovereign, or the person sharing in the sovereign power, is known as king; and these ceremonies seem to make a distinction between the succession of an hereditary king to his throne and the succession of an hereditary peer to his rank. The distinction between a king and an emperor is not very clearly defined. Emperor comes from imperator, a title used by the sovereigns of the Roman empire. When that empire became divided, each sovereign, that of the West and that of the East, called himself an emperor. These emperors claimed a kind of supremacy over other sovereigns. The emperor of Germany was regarded as a kind of successor to the emperors of the West, and the emperor of Russia (who was and is often called the Czar), is, with less pretension to the honour, sometimes spoken of as successor to the emperor of the East. But we speak of the emperor of China, where emperor is clearly nothing more than king, and we use emperor rather than king only out of regard to the vast extent of his dominions. Napoleon I. called himself an emperor, a title revived by his nephew Napoleon III.; and we sometimes speak of the British empire. [EMPEROR.] The word king is of pure Teutonic origin, and is found slightly varied in its literal elements in most of the languages which are sprung from the Teutonic. The French, the Italian, the Spanish, and the Portuguese, on the other hand, have chosen to continue the use of the Latin word rex, only slightly varying the orthography according to the analogies of each particular language. King, traced to its origin, seems to denote one to whom superior knowledge has given superior power, allied, as it seems to be, to know, con, can; but on the etymology, or what is the same thing, the remote origin of the word, different opinions have been held, and the question may still be considered undetermined. There are two or three other words employed to designate the sovereigns of particular states, in using which we adopt the word which the people of those states use, instead of the word king. Thus there is the Shah of Persia, the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, the Czar (now more commonly styled Emperor) of Russia, and the grand Sultan. In the United States of America very limited powers are given to one person, who is elected to enjoy them for a short period with the title of President. A Regent is a temporary king. A personage in whom such extraordinary powers have been vested must of necessity have had very much to do with the progress and welfare of particular nations, and with the progress of human society at large. When held by a person of a tyrannical turn of mind, these powers might be made use of to repress all that was great and generous in the masses who were governed, and to introduce among them all the evils and miseries of slavery. Possessed by a person of an ambitious spirit, they might introduce unnecessary quarrelling among nations to open the way for conquest, so that whole nations might suffer for the gratification of the personal ambition of one. The lover of peace and truth, and human improvement and security, may have found in the possession of kingly power the means of benefiting a people to an extent that might satisfy the most benevolent heart. But it must now by the long experience of mankind have become sufficiently apparent that for the king himself and for his people it is best that there should be strong checks in the frame of society on the mere personal and private disposition of kings, in the forms of courts of justice, councils, parliaments, and other bodies or single persons whose concurrence must be obtained before anything is undertaken in which the interests of the community are extensively involved. In most countries, as in England, there are controlling powers such as these, and even in countries in which the executive and legislative power are nominally in some one person absolutely, the acts of that person are virtually controlled, if by nothing else, by the opinion of the people, a power constantly increasing as the facilities of communication and the knowledge of a people advance. Nothing can be more various than the constitutional checks in different states on the kingly power, or, as it is more usually called in England, the royal prerogative. Such a subject must be passed over in an article of confined limits such as this must be, else in speaking of the kingly dignity it might have been proper to exhibit how diversely power is distributed in different states, each having at its head a king. But the subject must not be dismissed without a few observations on the kingly office (now by hereditary descent discharged by a queen) [QUEEN], as it exists among ourselves. The dawn of the English kingly power is to be perceived in the establishment of Egbert, at the close of the 8th century, as king of the English. His family is illustrated by the talents and virtues of Alfred, and the peacefulness and piety of Edward. On his death there ensued a struggle for the succession between the representative of the Danish kings, who for awhile had usurped upon the posterity of Egbert, and William then duke of Normandy. It ended with the success of William. This is generally regarded as a kind of new beginning of the race of English kings, for William was but remotely allied to any of the Saxon kings. In his descendants the kingly office has ever since continued; but though the English throne is hereditary, it is not hereditary in a sense perfectly absolute, nor does it seem to have been ever so considered. For when Henry I. was dead, leaving only a daughter, named Maud, she did not succeed to the throne; and when Stephen died, his son did not succeed, but the crown passed to the son of Maud. Again, on the death of Richard I. a younger brother succeeded, to the exclusion of the son and daughter of an elder brother deceased. Then ensued a long series of regular and undisputed successions; but when Richard II. was deposed, the crown passed to his cousin Henry of Lancaster, son of John of Gaunt, son of Edward III., though there were descendants living of Lionel, duke of Clarence, who was older than John among the children of Edward III. When the rule of Henry VI. became weak, the issue of Lionel advanced their claim. The struggle was long and bloody. It ended in a kind of compromise, the chief of the Lancastrian party taking to wife the heiress of the Yorkists. From that marriage have sprung all the later sovereigns, and the principle of hereditary succession remained undisturbed till the reign of King William III., who was called to the throne on the abdication of James II., when an act was passed excluding the male issue of James, the issue of his sister the duchess of Orleans, and the issue of his aunt the queen of Bohemia, with the exception of her youngest daughter the princess Sophia and her issue, At the coronation of the king he makes oath to three things:-that he will govern according to law; that he will cause justice to be administered; and that he will maintain the Protestant church. His person is sacred. He cannot by any process of law be called to account for any of his acts. His concurrence is necessary to every legislative enactment. He sends embassies, makes treaties, and even enters into wars without any previous consultation with parliament. He nominates the judges and the other high officers of state, the officers of the army and navy, the governors of colonies and dependencies, the bishops, deans, and some other dignitaries of the church. He calls parliament together, and can at his pleasure prorogue or dissolve it. He is the fountain of honour: all hereditary titles are derived from his grant. He can also grant privileges of an inferior kind, such as rights of exclusive trading, and of markets and fairs. and yields an empyreumatic oil, with pungent vapours of pyrokinic Kinate of Quinine.-The natural salt crystallises with difficulty, on account of the admixture of yellow colouring and other matters, and these have prevented the determination of its crystalline form. This salt is very bitter, readily soluble in water, and but slightly so in alcohol of sp. gr. 0-837. It is decomposable by heat, without residue. By evaporation the solution is reduced to a viscid paste, which, when moistened and exposed to the air, exhibits rudiments of crystallisation. It is, like other salts of quinine, decomposed by the alkalies ammonia, potash, and soda, which precipitate the quinine. Kinate of quinine may be formed artificially by dissolving quinine recently precipitated from the sulphate in a solution of kinic acid, with a gentle heat. By exposure to the air the liquid becomes a mammellated mass, containing small brilliant rhombic crystals of kinate of quinine. This is but a very slight sketch of the power inherent in the kings of England; but the exercise of any or all of these powers is limited by two circumstances: first, the king cannot act politically without an agent, and this agent is not protected by that irresponsibility which belongs to the king himself, but may be brought to account for his acts if he transgress the law; and, secondly, the constant necessity which arises of applying to parliament for supplies of money gives to that body virtually such a control over the exercise of the royal pre-water, and slightly so in alcohol of sp. gr. 0-837. rogative, as amounts to a necessity of obtaining its concurrence in any public measure of importance. [PARLIAMENT.] Kinate of Cinchonine.--The natural compound very much resembles that of quinine; the artificial salt yields crystals by exposure to the air, which are like, but are more distinct than, those of the kinate of quinine obtained in the same way. This salt is bitter, very soluble in KING'S BLUE. [COLOURING MATTERS.] KING'S YELLOW. [COLOURING MATTERS.] KINGS, THE BOOKS OF, the name of two books of the Old Testament. They originally formed only one book in the Hebrew text, and are entitled, that is, kings.' In the Septuagint they are divided into two books, and are entitled 'the third and fourth books of reigns' or kingdoms (Baoiλeiwv тpítn kal tetáptn); since the first and second books of Samuel are called in this translation the first and second books of Kings. These books contain an account of Jewish history from the death of David to that of Solomon (1 Kings, i.-xi.); an account of the division of the kingdom under his successor Rehoboam, and the history of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, to the conquest of the former by the Assyrians under Shalmaneser (1 Kings, xii.-2 Kings, xvii.); and the separate history of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, till they were carried away captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar in the reign of Jehoiachin. (2 Kings, xviii.-xxv.) The period covered by the two books is 455 years. These books, in common with the books of Chronicles and many others of the Old Testament, are generally ascribed to Ezra, though the Jews give the authorship to Jeremiah or Isaiah, but neither the author nor the time in which they were written can be determined with any degree of certainty; and Biblical scholars are much divided in opinion on the subject. It is evident from many passages, and especially from the last chapter of these books, that a portion of them must have been written in the time of the Babylonian captivity; but there are also other passages which must have been written before the destruction of the kingdom of Israel, and while the temple at Jerusalem was still standing. (1 Kings, viii. 8; ix. 13, 21; x. 12; xii. 19; 2 Kings, viii. 22; x. 27; xiv. 7; xvii. 23, 34, 41.) It is therefore probable that these books are only a collection of different documents written by persons present at the events narrated, and that the compiler only wrote such portions as were necessary to connect the different documents, and to form one continuous narrative. But though there may be uncertainty as to the writer, there is none as to the truth of the matters they record, of which the internal evidence is sufficient proof, independent of which other parts of the sacred writings bear testimony to their integrity, as Matt. xii. 42; Romans, xi. 4, &c., and our Lord, in Luke iv. 26, quotes the example of Elijah and Elisha that prophets have no honour in their own country. The Jews have uniformly accepted these writings as divinely inspired, and Christians as uniformly placed them among the canonical books. KINIC or QUINIC ACID (CH20020,2HO) is obtained from cinchona bark, in the manufacture of sulphate of quinine. It occurs in the bark united with the quinine, and when lime is added to a solution of bark, a kinate of lime is formed. The kinic acid is procured from this compound by the action of oxalic acid. It forms salts with the metals, highly interesting to the chemist. Kinic acid has a very sour, but when pure not a bitter taste; it reddens litmus paper strongly; is unalterable in the air, dissolves in 24 times its weight of water at 48°, and is also soluble in alcohol. When heated in a retort it readily fuses, boils up, decomposes, blackens, 20 Kinate of Lime (CH2CaO, +20 aq.) This salt crystallises in rhomboids and hexagonal plates; it has but little taste; it is soluble in six times its weight of water at 60°, and much more so in boiling water. It is insoluble in alcohol. It is decomposed by oxalic acid and sulphuric acid, and also by the alkaline carbonates. According to Berzelius, a small quantity of kinate of lime may be obtained from the alburnum of the fir-tree. The properties of the artificial kinates are thus, with slight alterations, given by Berzelius. Kinate of potash, bitter and deliquescent. Kinate of soda crystallises in hexahedral prisms; it appears to contain no water of crystallisation, and does not alter by exposure to the air. Kinate of ammonia, deliquescent. By evaporation a portion of its acid is set free. Kinate of baryta crystallises in dodecahedrons with triangular faces; becomes opaque by exposure to the air; is very soluble in water, but slightly so in alcohol of 0·830. Kinate of magnesia, very soluble, and forms crystalline excrescences similar to cauliflowers. Kinate of manganese crystallises in rose-coloured lamellar crystals. Kinate of zinc crystallises in laminæ, or in cauliflower-like aggregations. Kinate of nickel, a green gummy mass, very soluble in water. Perkinate of iron, a reddish-yellow gummy mass, soluble in water. Kinate of lead crystallises in slender needles, which do not alter by exposure to the air, and are soluble in alcohol. Subkinate of lead, a white powder insoluble in water. Kinate of copper crystallises in green needles, or rhombic lamina; the surface becomes white by exposure to the air. Perkinate of mercury, a colourless salt which does not crystallise. Kinate of silver forms mammellated crystals, which readily blacken in the light. When kinic acid or kinate of lime is distilled with sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, a new compound called kinone, or kinöil, is obtained. It occurs in crystals of a fine golden-yellow colour, which are soluble in water, having a pungent smell when in the state of vapour. When kinone is acted on by reducing agents, it takes up 2 and 4 equivalents of hydrogen, forming green and white hydrokinone. The first forms green crystals of exceeding beauty; the latter are white. Wöhler has obtained several compounds of kinone, of which the following tabular statement gives the names as far as they are yet known :- KINO, an astringent substance, the concrete juice of one or more plants. Most skilful pharmacologists are agreed in referring the East India kino, called also Amboyna kino, to the Pterocarpus marsupium (Roxb. Coromand. Plants,' ii., t. 116; Fl. Indica,' iii., p. 234), of which Pterocarpus bilobus is perhaps a mere variety, though a smaller tree. The first is a native of the Circar Mountains, and forests of the Malabar coast. No kino is imported at the present day from Africa, though the juice of Pterocarpus crenaceus is collected by the Senegambians for their own use in medicine and the arts. It is quite a misnomer to term the inspissated juice of the Nauclea (Uncaria) gambier, or gambear, African kino, as this shrub grows in the Indian Archipelago. In Australia a sort of kino is procured from the Eucalyptus resinifera (White), which finds its way to the East Indies, where it is used as a cotton-dye, as indeed the other kinds are also, giving to cotton the yellowish-brown colour known as nankeen; the colour varies with the different sorts of kino used. above directed, the most important and difficult part of the groundwork In the West Indies the juice of the Coccoloba uvifera is called American kino, or American extract of rhatany, or false rhatany extract. These different extracts differ in their chemical habitudes with re-agents, but they all agree in possessing a stong astringent power. Kino most commonly occurs in grains of a shining aspect and rich ruby-red colour; they are easily reduced to powder. It is nearly entirely soluble in water and in alcohol. Vauquelin analysed that sort which is termed African, and found it to consist of 75 per cent. of tannin, 24 of red mucilage, and 1 of woody fibre. [TANNIC ACID.] Some of the kino of commerce is no doubt produced by Butea frondosa, which is common as a tree or shrub in every part of India. On comparing together specimens of the astringent gum of this plant, contained in Dr. Royle's collection, with some brought from Northwestern India by Mr. Beckett, and both these with some sent from Bombay as the kino of the Butea frondosa, they were all three found to be identically the same kind of gum; but Mr. Beckett's, from being the freshest specimen, was the most highly coloured. These were all moreover found to correspond, especially the specimens from Bombay, with some astringent gum found by Mr. Pereira in one of the old druggists' shops of London, under the name of Gummi rubrum astringens, which was the name by which kino was known. It was introduced into practice by Dr. Fothergill as Gummi astringens Gambiense. It is remarkable that the Sanskrit name of Butea frondosa is kinsuka. From its gum being labelled by a druggist as Gummi rubrum astringens, it is evident it must have been among the earliest sub-flow of water for the garden should be from the surface of the pond or stitutes for the African kind, of which so little has ever been imported into this country. Analysed by Mr. E. Solly, jun., the Butea kino was found to contain between 60 and 70 per cent. of tannin with gum. It is curious that Dr. Roxburgh remarks of the gum of the Butea frondosa, that it is so like that of his Pterocarpus marsupium that one description might suffice for both, with respect as well in appearance as to the action of chemical re-agents. KINONE. [KINIC ACID.] KINONIC ACID. [KINIC ACID.] KINONIC GROUP (Quinonic Group), one of the groups of organic bodies belonging to the Benzoic series of Gerhard's system of classification. Several of the bodies belonging to this group are produced by the metamorphosis of phenylic alcohol, and of salicylic, and indigotic compounds. They are however usually prepared from the kinic acid contained in cinchona bark. The following are the principal bodies belonging to this group : KINOTANNIC ACID. [TANNIC ACIDS.] KINOVIC ACID. [KINOVATIC ACID.] KITCHEN-GARDEN. Every one knows what is generally understood by this name, a kitchen-garden forming a sort of inseparable adjunct to every country-house, to the mansion of the rich as well as to the humble cottage. In laying out the grounds of a country residence provision should be made for the site of the kitchen-garden. Though it should not obtrude on the ornamental ground immediately adjoining the house, the design of the whole should be so formed as to leave the kitchen-garden in the most favourable situation with regard to aspect, soil, and water. The aspect should be open to the south, but sheltered on other sides, more especially from northerly and easterly winds, by rising ground or lofty trees at some distance. The surface should be nearly level, or in some cases, according to the pervious nature of the subsoil, it may be quite so; but, generally speaking, a gentle slope from north to south is best. The soil should consist of a rich loam, neither too light nor so adhesive as to be liable to bind strongly in dry weather. The depth of soil ought not to be less than two feet, and more is absolutely necessary for some kinds of vegetables. If the subsoil be very impervious it should be sub-trenched; and in doing this the undisturbed bottom of the whole area should form a regularly inclined plane towards a proper drain; or if more convenient the bottom may form several planes so inclined as to allow the water a descent to a drain running through the lowest points. In the formation of gardens this is frequently not sufficiently attended to; while care is taken that the surface of the soil should be fair to the eye, a comparatively unimportant circumstance. If the bottom be made as The quantity of ground which a kitchen-garden should contain must be regulated according to the number of individuals which it is required to supply. An acre is calculated to afford a tolerable supply for sixteen individuals, but much depends on the nature of the vegetables required. Potatoes, turnips, peas, and carrots are frequently obtained of better quality and at less expense from a field than from a garden. With respect to potatoes in particular, only early varieties are now generally cultivated in gardens. If the mansion be only fully occupied for a part of the season, the quantity of ground will require to be nearly as much as if the supply were required throughout the year. Thus for example, a considerable breadth may be found necessary for peas in spring, and the same may be occupied with broccoli in autumn; so that the ground which would be sufficient for a few months' demand may be made equally so for the whole season by a proper succession of crops. For similar reasons it will be found that where a steady supply is required, proportionably less ground will be requisite than when the demand alternately exceeds and falls short of the mean. A moderate establishment will require two acres of kitchen-garden, and a large one five or six; and in either case it may be found necessary to have recourse to field culture for those productions to which that mode of rearing is more especially adapted. The form of a kitchen-garden should be composed of straight lines. If rectangular, it will prove a saving of labour; for it is practically known that more time is required to trench a piece of ground of a triangular form, than if the same extent were in the shape of a square or parallelogram; and besides, labourers who may not happen to be accustomed to the method of working such figures as have inclined sides are liable to make the surface irregular. A range of forcinghouses is generally placed on the north side; and as the wall on that side is the most valuable for fruit-trees on account of its direct south aspect, it becomes desirable that it should be extended as much as possible on each or both ends of the range. The form of the kitchengarden is consequently determined to be that of a parallelogram with the two long sides running due east and west. The melon-ground, containing also pits for culinary forcing, should form an adjoining compartment well sheltered and excluded from the view on account of the quantities of litter and other fermenting substances which it must necessarily contain. It is found that grapes ripen better against a very high wall than they do when trained on a low one. The conclusion to be drawn from this fact must be, that a greater accumulation of heat will take place in front of a wall 12 feet high than where the height is less, and consequently the trees, whilst they have space for a greater extension, enjoy an increased degree of warmth. Therefore it will be desirable that the walls of a kitchen-garden should not be less than the height above mentioned, with the exception of the one on the south, which may be only 10 feet, because it will occasion less shade; and if the wall on the opposite or north side be made 14 feet high instead of 12 feet, greater utility and a better effect will result. Once erected, walls are too valuable to be left unoccupied, and a border should accordingly be formed outside, as well as inside, for the reception of fruit-trees to be trained against them. This requires the enclosure of a slip, containing the wall-border, a walk, and a border between the latter and the outside fence. If this outside or ring-fence were formed of materials on which young trees could be trained, so as to fill any accidental vacancy that may occur on the principal walls, great advantages would accrue, for then the walls would always appear filled with trees in a bearing state. Such nursery trees should be carefully moved every second year, so that they may always be in a proper condition for their final destination. The interior departments of the kitchen-garden are usually bounded by fruit-trees planted within two or three feet of the walks. Not only are bushes, such as gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, used for this purpose, but fruit-trees of various kinds. The latter are trained either as dwarfs by grafting apples on paradise stocks, and pears on quinces, and causing their branches to proceed from near the ground; or as espaliers. The latter were formerly more in use for training fruit trees in kitchen-gardens than they are at the present time. Some object to their appearance, others to their expense compared with their utility. Their appearance is certainly not unsightly if they are not made too high; and although the old varieties of fruit-trees trained upon this plan were unprofitable, yet many of the new kinds will produce abundantly. They occupy very little space, and their shade, if not made higher than six feet, can be scarcely injurious, especially as it can be made to fall chiefly on the walk. Very few of the subjects of kitchen-garden cultivation are indigenous; they are chiefly varieties of luxuriant habits, which are artificially maintained and augmented by the art of the cultivator. The principal means employed for rendering the soil of the kitchengarden subservient to this purpose are,-the application of abundance of manure; trenching, digging,.and otherwise stirring the soil; and a due rotation of crops. Manure supplied in abundance will generally produce luxuriance in vegetables, although sometimes a disagreeable rankness is communicated to the flavour. This is in a great measure corrected by trenching, which becomes occasionally highly necessary; and although expensive, it will always repay the cost, if judiciously performed, particularly if the soil be of a consolidating nature. Trenching exposes fresh soil, and gives rest to that which has been partially exhausted on the surface; it renders the soil pervious to water and air, and likewise for the roots of the plants; in wet weather the latter are free from stagnant moisture; and in drought they seldom suffer, because they have been able to penetrate the soil so far as to be beyond the reach of dryness. Moreover, if a thermometer is plunged in well loosened soil, after a few days of hot sun in March, it will be found to indicate a temperature many degrees above that in more compact earth, or where the soil has not been stirred for several years. The advantage of this communication of heat is obvious, especially when it is borne in mind that a number of kitchen-garden plants are natives of countries possessing a warmer soil and climate than those of Britain. It is always advantageous to attend to a proper rotation of crops, especially where manure is not abundantly applied, nor trenching performed. One kind of plant should not immediately follow another of the same nature, or one closely allied. The selection of the plants or vegetables grown must depend wholly on the tastes and requisitions of the owners, but we may add that many of the commoner vegetables are most profitably raised by field cultivation. (Lindley, Theory and Practice of Horticulture, 1855; Loudon, Encyclopedia of Gardening, 1850.) KLAPROTHIUM. [CADMIUM.] KNIGHT, KNIGHTHOOD. During the prevalence of the feudal system, when the military strength of the nation was measured by the number and efficiency of the knights whom the sovereign was able to summon to the field, a regular supply of persons qualified to perform in an effectual manner the services annexed to their tenures was a matter in which the public as well as the crown were deeply interested; and the common law adopted that part of the feudal system which enabled the king, by process of distress [DISTRESS], to compel those who held knight's fees [KNIGHT'S FEES] to take upon themselves the order of knighthood, or, in other words, to prove, by their reception into that order, that they had received the training and possessed the arms and accoutrements, and were, as to other requisites, qualified to take the field as knights. The statute, or rather the grant of 1 Edward II., enrolled in parliament, called "Statutum de Militibus," appears to have been made, partly as an indulgence upon the commencement of a new reign, and partly for the purpose of removing some doubts which existed as to the persons liable to be called upon to receive knighthood. The king thereby, in the first place, granted a respite until the following Christmas to all those who ought to have become, but were not, knights, and were then distrained ad arma militaria suscipienda. Further, it directed that if any complained in Chancery that he was distrained and had not land to the value of 401. in fee, or for term of his life, and was ready to verify that by the country (that is, by the decision of a jury), then some discreet and lawful knights of the county should be written to, in order to make inquisition of the matter; and if they found it to be so, he was to have redress, and the distress was to cease. Again, where a person was impleaded for the whole of his land, or for so much of it that the remainder was not of the value of 401., and he could verify the fact, then also the distresss was to cease till that plea was determined. Again, where a person was bound in certain debts atterminated in the exchequer at a certain sum to be received thereof annually (that is, respited, subject to payment by instalments), and the remainder of his land was not worth 401. per annum, the distress was to cease till the debt was paid. No one was to be distrained ad arma militaria suscipienda till the age of twenty-one, or on account of land which he held in manors of the ancient demesne of the crown as a sokeman, inasmuch as those lands were liable to pay a tallage when the king's lands were tallaged. With respect to those who held land in socage of other manors, and who performed no servitium forinsecum, or service due upon the tenure, though not expressed in the grant, the rolls of chancery in the times of the king's predecessors were to be searched, and it was to be ordered according to the former custom; the same of clerks in holy orders holding any lay fee, who would, if laymen, have been liable to become knights. No one was to be distrained in respect of property of burgage tenure. Persons under obligations to become knights, who had held their land only a short time, were extremely old, or had an infirmity in their limbs, or had some incurable disease, or the impediment of children, or law-suits, or other necessary excuses, were to appear and make fine before two commissioners named in the act, who were to take discretionary fines from such disabled persons by way of composition. Under this regulation, those who were distrained upon as holding land of the value of 401. per annum either received knighthood or made fine to the king. The alteration in the nominal value of money occasioned by the increased quantity of the precious metals, and still more by successive fraudulent degradations of the standard, gradually widened the circle within which estates were subjected to this burden; and in the 16th and 17th centuries lands which in the reign of Edward II. were not perhaps worth 41. per annum, had risen in nominal value to 401., and were often held by persons belonging to a totally different class from those who were designated by 1 Edward II., stat. 1, as persons having 40 libratas terræ. That power of compelling those who refused to take upon themselves the order of knighthood, or rather of distraining them till they received knighthood, or compounded with the king by way of fine, which originally was a means of enforcing the performance of a duty to the crown and to the public, by persons holding a certain position and having a certain stake in the country, was perverted into a process for extorting money from those who would have been exempt at common law, which regulated the amount of a knight's fee by the sufficiency of the land to support a knight, and not by its fluctuating nominal value in a debased currency. This oppressive, if not dishonest proceeding, which was occasionally resorted to in the reigns of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, was reduced into a system by the rash advisers of Charles I., and was adopted by that unfortunate prince as one of the modes by which money might be raised without resorting to a parliament for assistance. The undisguised manner in which this ancient prerogative was thus abused, led to its total abolition. By 16 and 17 Car. I., c. 20, it is enacted, that none shall be compelled, by writ or otherwise, to take upon him the order of knighthood, and that all proceedings concerning the same shall be void, Persons have been required to take upon themselves the order of knighthood as a qualification for the performance of honourable services at coronations, in respect of the lands which they held by grand serjeanty. Knighthood in England is now conferred by the king (or queen when the throne is filled by a female) by simple verbal declaration attended with a slight form, without any patent or other written instrument. Sometimes, but rarely, knighthood is conferred on persons who do not come into the presence of royalty. This is occasionally done to governors of colonies, and other persons in prominent stations abroad. The lordlieutenant of Ireland has a delegated authority of conferring this honour, which is very sparingly exercised. Knighthood gives to the party precedence over esquires and other untitled gentlemen. "Sir" is prefixed to the baptismal name of knights and baronets, and their wives have the legal designation of " Dame" which is ordinarily converted into "Lady." Knighthood is, however, not hereditary, but merely personal. A rank correspondent to our rank of knighthood has been found in all Christian countries. Some regard it as a kind of continuation of the equestrian order among the Romans. But it is safer to regard it as originating in Christian times; and the 11th and 12th centuries have been named as the period to which the order of knighthood as now existing may be traced. In such an inquiry there are two difficulties: first, to state with sufficient precision what is the thing to be proved; and, secondly, to obtain evidence of the commencement of an institution which probably grew, almost insensibly, out of a state of society common to the whole of civilised Europe. It was a military institution, but there appears to have been something of a religious character belonging to it, and the order of knight hood, like the orders of the clergy, could be conferred only by persons who were themselves members of the order. In early times some knights undertook the protection of pilgrims; others were vowed to the defence or recovery of the Holy Sepulchre. Some, knights-errant, roved about "seeking adventures,"-a phrase not confined to books of romance, of which there are many on this subject, but found in serious and authentic documents. |