sultum Tertullianum and Orphitianum: xxxix. explains the means which the law or the prætor provides for preventing any one from receiving damage where a personal, real, or mixed action will not lie, after which it ends with the explanation of donations generally, and of such as are made in contemplation or view of death (mortis causâ): xl. relates to manumission or freeing of slaves: xli. treats of the various ways by which the property of things is acquired, and of the acquisition and loss of possession, and lastly of lawful causes which authorise possession and lead to usucaption: xlii. treats of definitive and interlocutory sentences, of confessions in judgment, of the cession of goods, of the causes of seizure and their effects, of the privileges of creditors of curators appointed for the administration of goods, and of the revocation of acts done to defraud creditors: xliii. treats of interdicts and possessory actions: xliv. speaks of pleas (exceptiones) and defences, and of obligations and actions: xlv. of stipulations, &c.: xlvi, of sureties, novations, delegations, payments, discharges, prætorian stipulations, &c.: xlvii. treats of private offences: xlviii. treats of public offences; then follow accusations, inscriptions, prisons; and lastly it treats of torture, punishments, confiscation, relegation, deportation, and of the bodies of malefactors executed: xlix. treats of appeals; and then gives an account of the rights of the exchequer, and of matters relating to captives, military discipline, soldiers and veterans: 1. treats of the rights of cities and citizens, of decuriones and their children, of public offices, of immunities, of deputies and ambassadors; of the administration of things belonging to cities, of public works, fairs, &c.; of taxes laid upon the provinces, concluding with the interpretation and signification of legal terms, and with the rules of law.

Of the merits and imperfections of the 'Digest,' Cujas, Hotomannus, Heineccius, Gravina, Schulting, Bynkershoek, and many others have amply spoken. With all its faults it is a noble work, and much superior to the Code in its style, matter, and arrangement; it has, in great measure, embodied the wisdom of the most learned men of the best age of the empire, men who grounded their opinions on the principles of reason and equity, and who for the most part were personally unconcerned and disinterested in the subjects on which they gave their responsa. Tribonian and his colleagues are charged with making many interpolations, with altering many passages in the writings of their predecessors, substituting their own opinions, and passing them off to the world under the name of the ancient jurists. Justinian himself acknowledged that he was obliged to accommodate the old jurisprudence to the altered state of the times, and to "make the laws his own.' Another charge, which is, however, unsupported by evidence or probability, is, that Justinian and his civilians purposely destroyed the old text books that had served them for the compilation of the Pandects.' Long, however, before Justinian's time, the works of the ancient jurists were partly lost, and the vicissitudes of the ages that followed may easily have obliterated the rest. While the Digest was being compiled, Justinian commissioned Tribonian and two other civilians, Theophilus and Dorotheus, to make an abridgement of the first principles of the law, for the use of young students who should wish to apply themselves to that science. This new work, being completed, was published under the name of 'Institutiones,' about one month before the appearance of the Digest. The Institutions were mainly based on an older work of the same description and title. [GAIUS, in BIOG. DIV.] They are arranged in four books, subdivided into titles. As the law has three objects, persons, things, and actions, the first book treats of persons or status; the second and third, and first five titles of the fourth, treat of things; and the remaining titles of the fourth book treat of actions. [ROMAN LAW.]

Besides these three compilations, the Code, the Institutes, and the Digest, Justinian, after the publication of the second edition of his Code, continued to issue new laws or constitutions chiefly in Greek upon particular occasions, which were collected and published together after his death under the name of Neapai Alaтágeis, or Novæ or Constitutiones Novella, or Authenticæ. The Novellæ are divided into nine Collationes and 168 Constitutiones, or, as they are now often called, novels. The Novella,together with thirteen Edicts of Justinian, make up the fourth part of his legislation. There are four Latin translations of the Novella, two of which were made soon after Justinian's death; the third is by Haloander, printed at Nürnberg in 1531; and the fourth was printed at Basel by Hervagius in 1561. This first translation is that which is printed in the editions of the Corpus Juris opposite to

the Greek text, and is very valuable, notwithstanding it has been stigmatised by some with the name "barbarous :" it is sometimes called Authentica Interpretatio or Vulgata; a recent and valuable edition is that of G. E. Heimbach, 2 vols. 8vo, Lips. 1846-50. The version of Haloander is also printed in some editions of the Corpus Juris. The Novelle made many changes in the law as established by Justinian's prior compilations, and are an evidence that the emperor was seized with a passion for legislating; a circumstance which enables us to form a more correct judgment of his real merits, and lowers his character as a philosophic jurist.

(Ludewig, Vita Justiniani Magni atque Theodora, nec non Triboniani, Halle, 1731; Zimmern, Geschichte des Römischen Privatrechts bis Justinian, Heidelberg, 1826; Hugo, Lehrbuch der Geschichte des Römischen Rechts, Berlin, 1832; History of the Roman or Civil Law, by Ferriere, translated by J. Beaver, London, 1724; Hommelii, Palingenesia; Brinkmannus, Institutiones Juris Romani, Schleswig, 1822; System des Pandekten-Rechts, by Thibaut, 7th ed., Jena, 1828; Das Corpus Juris in's Deutsche übersetzt von einem vereine Rechtsgelehrter und herausgegeben von Otto, Schilling und Sintenis, Leipzig, 1831; Irving's Introduction to the Civil Law; Les Cinquante Livres du Digeste, &c., Traduits en Français par feu M. Henri Hulot, Paris, 1805; Pandectes de Justinien mises dans un nouvel ordre, &c., par R. J. Pothier, traduites par Bréard Neuville, révues et corrigées par M. Moreau de Montalin, Avocat, Paris, 1810; Pothier's edition of the Digest, reprinted at Paris, in 5 vols. 4to, 1818-20, is a useful edition; there is a very cheap edition of the Corpus Juris, published in Germany, by Beck, 3 vols., small fol., Leipzig, 1829; the editions of the Corpus Juris and of the Institutes are very numerous.) [CORPUS JURIS; GAIUS, in BIOG. DIV.]

JUVENILE OFFENDERS. Numerous statutes have been passed of late years with the view of providing for the effectual reformation of criminal children; but the law is still in a transitional if not experimental state. Criminal Courts are now however enabled to sentence juvenile criminals to confinement in reformatories, which the magistrates of counties and districts are enabled to provide for this purpose, the parents being compellable, if able, to provide for their maintenance and education. The progress of public opinion and of legislation on this subject of deep interest and of national importance will be found traced in a work recently published by Mr. M. D. Hill, the Recorder of Birmingham, which is devoted to an account of the means to be taken for the repression of crime.

JYAR, in Hebrew is the eighth month of the Jewish year. It coincides, when earliest, with our April; but when the year is lengthened by the addition of a thirteenth month, it may be as late as our May. In the present year (1860) it begins on the 23rd of April. We usually pronounce the word Jyar, but it should be sounded Ecar, curiously like the Greek Eap, "the spring," with which some etymologists believe the word to be connected. Josephus, in the eighth book of his Antiquities,' c. 3, § 3, writes it 'Iap. In the two manuscripts containing the old calendar of Heliopolis (Balbek) we find it Iapap and Apap.

The Jewish almanacs mention several fasts in this month, but they do not appear to be all generally observed: one of three days' duration is set down for the commencement of Jyar, to be observed as an expiation by any persons who may have committed excesses during the celebration of the Passover in the preceding month; another, on the 10th, is held in memory of the death of Eli, and of the seizure of the Ark by the Philistines (1 Samuel iv. 18); another is kept for the death of Samuel on the 27th. The festivals in this month are only partially celebrated: one, on the 7th, in commemoration of a second consecration of the Temple by the Maccabees; one, on the 23rd, for the capture of Gaza (1 Macc. xiii. 43), or else for the capture of the tower of Jerusalem (ibid, v. 51); and a third is attributed, on insufficient authority, to the 27th, in memory of the expulsion of the Galilæans (?) by the Maccabees, but this would clash with the fast-day above mentioned, instituted to commemorate the death of the prophet Samuel. It appears from the 6th chapter of the 1st book of Kings, v. 1, that the ancient name of this month was Zif; it is called there "the second month," that being its place in the calendar before the commencement of the year was transferred from the spring to the autumn, or from Nisan to Tisri. [BUL.] The name occurs again in the 37th verse. Jyar has 29 days only.

K

has the same sound which C has before the vowels a, o, u. A reference to that consonant will therefore suffice for the power of the letter; its various forms may be seen in ALPHABET. Although this letter is now superfluous, it was not so when the characters of an alphabet were syllabic in power. Thus the letter & appears to have denoted at one time the syllable ka, while another character represented ko, and so on. Hence in the Greek and Hebrew alphabets the former was called kappa, kaph: the latter koppa, koph. accounts for the fact, that in Latin the letter k was never used except before the vowel a, precisely as q is found only before u, and the Greek koppa only before o. Even our own alphabet seems to imply such a limit in the use of this consonant, when it gives it the name ka, not ke; though the latter name would better agree with be, ce, de, &c.

KAKODYL. Synonymous with CACODYL.
KAKOPLATYL. [CACOPLATYL.]

This

KALEIDOPHONE. [ACOUSTICS.] KALEIDOSCOPE, a name compounded of two Greek words (kaλds and σKÓTOS), and denoting the exhibition of beautiful forms, is the designation of an optical instrument which was invented by Dr. (now Sir David) Brewster, and patented by him in 1817. About three years before that time Sir David Brewster, being engaged in making experiments on the polarisation of light by reflection, from plates of glass, observed that when two plates were inclined to one another, and the eye of the spectator was nearly in the produced line of the common section of their planes, the farther extremities of the plates were multiplied by successive reflections so as to exhibit the appearance of a circle divided into sectors, also that the several images of a candle near those extremities were circularly disposed about the centre; and these circumstances suggested to him the construction of an instrument of the kind above named.

It may be observed, however, that the multiplication of the image of an object by successive reflections from mirrors inclined to one another had long before been a subject of investigation in treatises on optics; and both Baptista Porta and Kircher had given descriptions of instruments consisting of mirrors united at two of their edges, which, being opened like two leaves of a book, were capable of multiplying the images of objects. Bradley also, about the year 1717, constructed an instrument consisting of two plates of glass inclined to one another, which being placed on a drawing, with the line of section perpendicular to the paper, exhibited to the eye several images of the figures, disposed by successive reflections about a centre. But the optical investigations alluded to are very remotely connected with the properties of the kaleidoscope; and the application of the latter to objects which may be moveable and situated at any distances from the observer, render Brewster's instrument very different from and far superior to the simple contrivances of Porta, Kircher, and Bradley.

The essential parts of the instrument consist of two plane mirrors of glass, having their posterior surfaces blackened in order to prevent any reflection of light from thence; mirrors of polished metal would, however, be preferable: each mirror is from six to ten inches long, and of a trapezoidal form; the larger end about an inch and a-half long, and the shorter end about three-quarters of an inch; and the two are placed in contact with one another at a long end of each, so as to form a dihedral angle, the like ends being placed together: the object to be viewed is disposed contiguously to the larger ends, and the eye should be near the opposite extremity, but a little above the line of contact. The effects produced by the reflections of the light may be understood from the following considerations :Let A C, BC, in the first of the figures, be the two extremities of the mirrors on the side farthest from the eye of the observer, which is supposed to be near the opposite extremity of the line of section passing through c perpendicularly to the plane of the paper. These lines AC, B C, and the sectoral space between them (which in the figure is one-eighth part of a circle), will be visible by rays coming directly to the eye; and, at the same time, rays from the line ac falling on the mirror BC at a certain angle of incidence will, on being reflected from thence to the eye, give rise to the image ca of that line; in like manner rays from the line BC falling on the mirror AC at an equal

of the mirror A c will fall on the mirror BC; and, while a portion of them arrive at such angles of incidence as to be reflected to the eye and produce the perception of the sector a cb', another portion of them will be reflected back to the mirror a cat such angles of incidence as to be re-reflected to the eye and cause the perception of the sector a'cb". In a similar manner the rays first reflected from B C a will, by subsequent reflections, give rise to the perceptions of the sectors b c a', b'ca".

immediately reflected image M', will give rise to the appearances of Thus it is easy to perceive that an object, as M, on A C, with its similar figures at m m', mm"; and an object, as N, on AB, with its immediately reflected image N', will give rise to the appearances of similar figures at nn', n"n": also an object, as P, between A C and в C, will appear by reflection similarly situated in all the other

sectors.

If the angle A CB beth of four right angles, in which m is any term in the series of even numbers 4, 6, 8, 10, &c., the number of sectors will be m, and each of them will be equal to AC B, while CY, the appearance of the line in which the mirrors meet each other, will, as in the figure, bisect the angle which is opposite to A CB; also if m be any term in the series of odd numbers 5, 7, 9, &c., the number of sectors will be m, and each of them will be equal to A CB, while c Y will coincide with the line in which the two lowest sectors join one another. It may hence be easily understood that if a flat object placed in the sector A CB, with its plane perpendicular to the mirrors, have its bounding-lines similarly situated with respect to AC and BC, the reflected images will be similar and equal to the original object; and the whole will constitute one symmetrical pattern, whether the value of m be odd or even: but if the bounding-lines are not similarly situated with respect to AC and BC, the reflected images will not, in the two lowest sectors, unite so as to correspond to the images in the other sectors, unless m be an even number. The second figure represents a pattern produced by the objects represented in the sector corresponding to A CB in the first figure.

In order that the whole pattern in the field of view might possess perfect symmetry about the centre c, it would be necessary that the eye should be exactly in the direction of the line in which the glass plates meet one another; but in such a situation the reflected images would not be visible: if the eye were far above the line of meeting, the visible field of view would be sensibly elliptical, and the brightness of the field would be diminished; it follows, therefore, that the eye should be near the smaller ends of the mirrors, and very little above the line of their junction. Again, it may be readily understood that, in order to permit the reflected images of objects to be symmetrically disposed about the centre of the field of view, the object should be exactly in a plane contiguous to the mirrors at the extremities which are farthest from the eye; for the line in which the planes of glass meet each other appearing to pass through the common centre of the visible sectors, if the object were placed on that line of junction, and either between the eye and those extremities or beyond the latter, it is evident, the eye being above the line of meeting, that the apparent or projected place of the object would not coincide with that common centre, but in the former case would appear below, and in the latter above, that centre. The length of the mirrors should be such that the object in the sector A CB may be distinctly visible; the eye may, however, if necessary, be assisted by a concave or a convex lens.

The first kaleidoscopes constructed by Sir David Brewster consisted simply of the two mirrors, which were fixed in a cylindrical tube; the objects were pieces of variously coloured glass attached to the farther ends of the mirrors and projecting on the sectoral space ACB between

them; or the objects were placed between two plates of very thin glass, and held by the hand or fixed in a cell at the end of the tube. In some cases these plates were moved across the field of view, and in others they were made to turn round upon the axis of the tube. The pieces of coloured glass or other objects which were situated in the sector ACB were, by the different reflections, made to appear in all the other sectors; and thus the field of view presented the appearance of an entire object or pattern, all the parts of which were disposed with the most perfect symmetry. By moving the glass plates between which the objects were contained, the pattern was made to vary in form; and pleasing variations in the tints were produced by moving the instrument so that the light of the sky or of a lamp might fall on the objects in different directions. When the objects in the sector ACB are confined near its upper part, the images evidently form an annular pattern; and, on placing the two mirrors parallel to one another, the successive reflections of the objects produce one which is rectilinear.

Sir David Brewster subsequently found means to obtain multiplied images of such objects as flowers, trees, and even persons or things in motion. For this purpose he caused the two mirrors to be fixed in a tube as before, but this tube was contained in another from which, like the eye-tube of a telescope, it could be drawn at pleasure towards the eye at the opposite end of the exterior tube was fixed a glass lens of convenient focal length, by which there were formed images of distant objects at the place of the sector AC B. These images thus became objects which being multiplied by successive reflections from the mirrors, produced in the field of view symmetrical patterns of great beauty. Some kaleidoscopes have been executed in such a manner that the two mirrors may be placed at any required angle with one another, by which means the images in the visible field of view may be varied at pleasure. The instrument is capable also of being constructed so that the multiplied image may be projected on a screen, and thus made visible at one time to many spectators. In order to obtain this end, the rays of light from a powerful lamp are, by means of a lens, made to fall upon the object in ACB at the farther extremities of the two mirrors; and at the eye-end of the instrument is placed a lens of such focal length that the rays in each of the emergent pencils may converge at the screen : there will thus be formed on the latter a magnified image of the whole pattern. The tube containing the glass plates is frequently mounted on a stand having a ball-and-socket joint, on which it may be turned in any convenient direction; and the instrument being thus supported, the figures in its field may be easily sketched by a skilful artist, who by means of such an apparatus may be assisted in designing beautiful patterns.

Sir David Brewster's account of his invention is contained in his "Treatise on the Kaleidoscope,' Edinburgh, 1819, of which a new edition has just been published (1860). Dr. Roget has shown ('Annals of Philosophy,' vol. xi.) that the properties of the instrument may be greatly extended by employing, not only two, but three, and even four plane mirrors, united together at their edges so as to form a hollow prism, or a frustum of a pyramid, the reflecting surfaces being towards the interior. Of these, which are called Polycentral kaleidoscopes, the instruments constructed with three plane mirrors appear to produce the most pleasing effects; the mirrors may be disposed so that a section perpendicular to the axis shall be an equilateral triangle, a right-angled isosceles triangle, or a right-angled triangle having its two acute angles equal to 30° and 60°. The first disposition of the mirrors affords regular combinations of images in three different directions which cross each other at angles of 60° and 120°; and to instruments of this kind Dr. Roget gave the name of Triascope. With the second disposition the field is divided into square compartments having the hypothenuse of the triangle for their sides: this is called a Tetrascope. The third disposition exhibits a field of view divided into hexagonal compartments; and hence the instrument is designated a Hexascope.

KALENDÆ. [KALENDAR.]

KALENDAR, a register or distribution of the year, accommodated to the uses of life, containing the order of days, weeks, months, festivals, &c., as they occur in the course of the year. It is so called from the Kalenda, or Kalends, which among the Romans denoted the first day of every month. The kalendar, being of civil institution, varies according to the different distributions of time in different countries. Those which we shall take more particular notice of are, the Roman, the Julian, the Gregorian, and the Reformed kalendar: a slight mention of the others will be sufficient.

Romulus, according to tradition, formed what is deemed the original Roman kalendar, by which the year was divided into ten months only, consisting of an unequal number of days, and began with March. The total number of days was 304. It was however soon discovered that the civil year, as thus constituted, was much shorter than the solar year. Romulus therefore added two intercalary months to every year; but these months were not inserted in the kalendar, nor were any names assigned to them until the following reign. Some Roman antiquarians maintained that the old kalendar continued in use till the time of Tarquinius Priscus.

Numa, in imitation of the Greeks, divided the year into twelve months, according to the course of the moon, consisting in all of 354

days: according to Pliny ('Hist. Nat.,' xxxiv. 7), he afterwards added one day more to make the number odd, which was thought a more fortunate number. But as 10 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes (or rather 48 minutes 58 seconds) were wanting to make the lunar year correspond to the course of the sun, he intercalated every other year an extraordinary month, called Mensis intercalaris, or Mercedonicus, between the 23rd and 24th of February. This month appears to have consisted alternately of 22 and 23 days during periods of 22 years, the last biennium in the 22 years being entirely passed over. The intercalation of this month was left to the discretion of the pontifices, who, by inserting more or fewer days, used to make the current year longer or shorter, as was most convenient for themselves or their friends; for instance, that a magistrate might sooner or later resign his office, or contractors for the revenue have longer or shorter time to collect the In consequence of this licence the months were transposed from their proper seasons; the winter months carried back into autumn, and the autumnal into summer. Some critics are of opinion that there is a reference to this confusion in one of Cicero's letters to his friend Atticus (x. 17).

taxes.

Julius Cæsar, when he had made himself master of the state, resolved to put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the use of the intercala. tions; and for that purpose (B.c. 47) adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and assigned to the months the number of days which they still contain. He also added an intercalary day to February every four years. [BISSEXTILE.] To make everything proceed regularly, from the 1st of the ensuing January, he inserted in the current year, besides the intercalary month of 23 days, which fell into it, two extraordinary months between November and December, the one of 33, the other of 34 days; so that this year, which was called the last year of confusion, consisted of 15 months, or 445 days. (Sueton., Vit. J. Cæs., c. 40.) These 67 days were inserted in order to set the year right, which was 67 days in advance of the true time.

All this was effected by the care and skill of Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexandria, whom Cæsar had brought to Rome for that purpose; and a new kalendar was formed from his arrangement by Flavius, digested according to the order of the Roman festivals, and the old manner of computing the days by kalends, nones, and ides, which was published and authorised by the dictator's edict.

This is the Julian or Solar year, which continues in use to this day in all Christian countries, without any other variation than that of the old and new style, which was occasioned by a regulation of Pope Gregory XIII., A.D. 1582, who, observing that the vernal equinox, which at the time of the council of Nice, A.D. 325, had been on the 21st of March, then happened on the 10th, by the advice of astronomers caused ten days to be thrown out of the current year, between the 4th and 15th of October; and to make the civil year for the future to agree with the real one, or with the annual revolution of the earth round the sun, or, as it was then expressed, with the annual motion of the sun in the ecliptic, which is completed in 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, he ordained that every 100th year should not be leap-year, excepting the 400th; so that the difference will hardly amount to a day in 7000 years, or, according to a more accurate computation of the length of the year, to a day in 5200 years.

This alteration of the style was immediately adopted in all Catholic countries; but not in Great Britain till the year 1752, when eleven days were dropped between the 2nd and 14th of September, so that this month contained only nineteen days; and thenceforth the new or reformed style was adopted, as it had been before in most other countries of Europe. The same year also another alteration was made in England, by which the legal year, which before had begun on the 25th of March, began upon the first of January; this alteration first took place on the 1st of January, 1752: see the Statute 24 Geo. II., ch. 23. By this statute it was also enacted that the several years of our Lord 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, or any hundreth year of our Lord which shall happen in time to come, except only every fourth hundreth year of our Lord, whereof the year 2000 shall be the first, shall not be deemed bissextile or leap-years, but shall be considered as commo years, consisting of 365 days only; and that the years of our Lord 2000, 2400, 2800, and every other fourth hundredth year of our Lord from the year 2000 inclusive, and also all other years of our Lord which, by the present computation, are considered bissextile or leap-years, shall, for the future be esteemed bissextile or leap-years, consisting of 366 days: and that whereas according to the rule then in use for calculating Easter-day, that feast was fixed to the first Sunday after the first full moon next after the 21st of March; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, then Easter-day is the Sunday after; which rule had been adopted by the general council of Nice; but that as the method of computing the full moons then used in the church of England, and according to which the table to find Easter prefixed to the book of Common Prayer is found, had become erroneous, it was enacted that the said method should be discontinued, and that from and after the 2nd of September, 1752, Easter-day and the other moveable and other feasts were henceforward to be reckoned according to the kalendar tables and rules annexed to the Act, and attached to the books of Common Prayer. This was, in fact, an enactment of the Gregorian alteration, though no allusion to the source of the alteration is made. [EASTER, METHOD OF FINDING.]

It is not generally known that an effort was made to reform the

kalendar in England as early as the reign of Queen Elizabeth. On the 16th of March, 27 Eliz., A.D. 1584-5, a bill was read the first time in the House of Lords, entitled "An Act giving Her Majesty authority to alter and new make a Kalendar according to the Kalendar used in other Countries." It was read a second time on the eighteenth of that month, after which no notice occurs of the proposed measure. The formation of the Hebrew kalender is fixed by some to the same year as the council of Nice, A.D. 325: others have placed it in the year 360 and others as late as A.D. 500. Lindo however assures us that the Mishna compiled according to the Jewish account in the year A.D. 141, proves that the kalendar as used by the Jews in its present form, with the intercalary month, was generally known and followed at that For further information upon the Jewish kalendar the reader may consult Dr. Adam Clarke's 'Commentary upon the Bible,' and Lindo's

time.

"Jewish Calendar.'

Two Kalendars are in use in the East: the Arabian, which is common to all the Mohammedan countries; and the Persian, the use of which is peculiar to that country. This last is founded on the Persian era called 'Yezdegird.'

Of the three parts into which the Romans divided their month, the kalendæ, or kalends, have been already explained. They were so called (à calando vel vocando), from the pontifex calling out to the people that it was new moon. The fifth day of the month was called None, the nones, and the 13th Idus, the ides, from the verb iduare, to divide; because the ides nearly divided the month. The nones, from nonus, the ninth, were so called because, counting inclusively, they were nine days from the ides. In March, May, July, and October, the nones fell on the 7th and the ides on the 15th of the month. The mode of fixing any particular day was by saying that it was so many days before the kalends, nones, or ides, next immediately following. Thus the 28th of April was the 4th day before the kalends of March; the 4th of March was the 4th day before the nones of March; and the 9th of March was the 7th day before the ides of March.

The Attic year consisted of twelve lunar months of 30 and 29 days alternately an intercalary month of 29 or 30 days was inserted every two years, but as this was 74 days too much, the intercalary month was sometimes omitted. The full Attic month consisted of 30 days, and was divided into three decades.

On the subject of the Greek Kalendar the reader may consult Ideler, Handbuch der Mathematischen und Technischen Chronologie.'

(Adams's Roman Antiquities; Niebuhr, On the Secular Cycle, Hist. of Rome; Brady's Clavis Calendaria; Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History; Hutton's Philosophical and Mathematical Dictionary, v. Calendar; Lindo's Jewish Calendar, 8vo. Lond. 1838.)

The last we shall mention is the French Revolutionary Kalendar. In September, 1793, the French nation resolved that the republic should form a new era, and that a kalendar should be adopted on what were termed philosophical principles. The Convention therefore decreed, on the 24th of November, 1793, that the common era should be abolished in all civil affairs: that the new French era should commence from the foundation of the republic, namely, on the 22nd of September, 1792, on the day of the true autumnal equinox, when the sun entered Libra at 9h 18m 30s in the morning, according to the meridian of Paris; that each year should begin at the midnight of the day on which the true autumnal equinox falls; and that the first year of the French republic had begun on the midnight of the 22nd of September, and terminated on the midnight between the 21st and 22nd of September, 1793. To produce a correspondence between the seasons and the civil year, it was decreed, that the fourth year of the republic should be the first sextile, or leap-year; that a sixth complementary day should be added to it, and that it should terminate the first Franciade; that the sextile or leap-year, which they called an olympic year, should take place every four years, and should mark the close of each Franciade; that the first, second, and third centurial years, namely, 100, 200, and 300 of the republic, should be common, and that the fourth centurial year, namely, 400, should be sextile; and that this should be the case every fourth century until the 40th, which should terminate with a common year. The year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each, with five additional days at the end, which were celebrated as festivals, and which obtained the absurd name of "Sansculottides." Instead of the months being divided into weeks, they consisted of three parts, called Decades, of ten days each. It is however to be observed that the French republicans rarely adopted the decades in dating their letters, or in conversation, but used the number of the day of each month of their kalendar.

The republican kalendar was first used on the 26th of November, 1793, and was discontinued on the 31st of December, 1805, when the Gregorian was resumed.

On examination we find that many works give an account of this kalendar which is more or less incorrect. The decrees of the National Convention, which fixed the new mode of reckoning, were both vague and insufficient, so that it is no wonder that many detailed accounts neither agree with each other nor with the truth. To learn what the truth was, we have recourse to a French work, in its sixth edition: "Concordance des Calendriers Républicain et Grégorien,' par L. Rondonneau, Paris (6ième édition), 1812, 8vo. This work puts every day of every year, from An II. to An XXII. both inclusive, opposite to its

ARTS AND SCL, DIV. VOL. V.

day of the Gregorian calendar; it also gives the decrees of the National Convention. The account we have already given is stated in the common way we leave it for the reader to compare with the more accurate version. By these decrees it appears that the year is to begin at the midnight of Paris Observatory which precedes the true autumnal equinox. It is to consist of 365 days, with 12 months of 30 days each (the 30 days being 3 decades of 10 days each), and 5 complementary days, which were tastefully called sansculotides (a name afterwards repealed). A sixth complementary day was to be added, not according to any rule, but selon que la position de l'équinoxe le comporte; and although it was stated that it would be ordinairement nécessaire to add this 366th day once in four years, yet it is not even stated in what particular coming years the necessity would arise. The first decree, dated October 5, 1793 (the new month not having been introduced), declares the year then current to be the second year of the French republic, and enacts that An I. began with September 22, 1792, and An II. with September 22, 1793. The second decree, fixing the months, is dated the 4th of Frimaire, An II. (November 24th, 1793). The Gregorian reckoning was restored from and after January 1, 1806, by an imperial ordonnance, dated 22 Fructidor, An XIII. (September 9, 1805).

It is to actual usage, then, that we must appeal to know what the decrees do not prescribe-namely, the position of the leap-years. For though every period of four years was a Franciad, and the last year of the Franciad was called Sextile (having six complementary days), yet, in fact, An IV., An VIII., &c., are not leap-years. The following list, actually made from the work above mentioned, must be used as a correction of the usual accounts. For various matters connected with the public debt, &c., it was necessary to construct the table up to An XXII. Sept. Sept. begins 22, 1792 begins 24, 1803

An I. II. Sext. III.

22, 1793

22, 1794

An XII. XIII. XIV.

For instance, what is 14 Floréal, An XII.? The republican year begins Sept. 24, 1803, so Floréal falls in 1804, which is Gregorian leapyear. Look at the third table, and when the year begins Sept. 24, the ist of Floréal is April 21; consequently the 14th is May 4, 1804. Again, what is June 17, 1800, in the French calendar? The year is not Gregorian leap-year; and An VIII. contains it, which begins Sept. 23. Look in the second table, and in such a year it appears that June 1 is the 12th of Prairial; therefore June 17 is Prairial 28. KALENDS. [KALENDAR.]

KALIF. [CALIPH.]

KALISACCHARIC ACID. Synonymous with GLUCIC ACID. KAPNOMOR. [CAPNOMOR.]

KEEPER, LORD. [LORD KEEPER.]

KELP. [IODINE.]

KERMES MINERAL. [ANTIMONY.]

KERSEY, KERSEYMERE. [WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES.] KETONES. This name is applied in organic chemistry to a class of bodies obtained by submitting certain salts of the fatty acids, such as acetic acid, to dry distillation. Acetone is one of the best known ketones, and the mode of its formation will represent that of the rest of these bodies. It is best produced by distilling acetate of lime, when the following reaction occurs:

The ketones, as a class, have hitherto been very incompletely studied. KEY, in music, is the particular diatonic scale, whether major or minor, in which a composition begins and ends, and which more or less prevails in a given piece of music.

The diatonic scale may commence on any note, and that chosencalled the Key-Note-governs the progression of the other notes. [SCALE; DIATONIC.] If a composition begins and ends in a scale in which neither sharps nor flats are used, it is in the key of c, the distinctive term natural being understood. When three flats are placed at the clef, and the last and lowest note in the piece is Eb, the key is E. If in such case the last and lowest note is c, the key is c minor, &c.

As any note in the diatonic and chromatic scales may be taken as a key-note, it follows that there are twelve keys in the major mode, and twelve in the minor; for each scale may have either a major or a minor 3rd. [MAJOR; MINOR.] Hence arise twenty-four keys. But as three major and consequently three minor keys are binominous, there are in name thirty different keys, and as many signatures are in actual use [SIGNATURE]; though, in fact, there is only the beforementioned number of keys differing in reality.

By admitting double sharps and flats, the number of keys may be much farther, but not usefully, extended.

KHAN, a word of Mongol or Turkish extraction, said to mean great and powerful lord," was employed by the nations of Central Asia to express the full extent of royal power. This title was assumed by Gengis when he became supreme ruler of the Mongols and Tartars, and was adopted by all his successors. The earlier monarchs of the Ottoman empire were also distinguished by this title. The word is used in Persia in a much more restricted sense, and is applied to the governors of provinces, and to all officers of a certain rank. always called Jinggis Khaghan in the Mongol language.

The original form of this word was Khaghan; Gengis Khan is

KIDNAPPING is defined to be the stealing or conveying away of a man, woman, or child, and is an offence at common law, punishable by fine and imprisonment, and, formerly, by pillory. The highest form of this offence, the forcibly sending a man from his own country into some other, or to parts beyond the seas, though at common law only punishable as above mentioned, is an offence, as has been remarked, of such primary magnitude that it might well have been substituted upon the roll of capital crimes, in the place of many others, which until recently were there to be found (1 East's Pleas of the Crown, c. ix., s. iv.). The Jewish law declared that "he that stealeth a man, and selleth (Exod. xxi., 16). And by the civil law, the offence of spiriting away him, or if he be found in his hand, he shall surely be put to death” Charta, the petition of right, and the habeas corpus acts are pointed and stealing men and children, was punished with death. Magna provisions and treaties for the suppression of the slave trade. to the security from expatriation, as are also the numerous legislative

exception to the right of the subject, in this country, to his personal The forcible impressment of seamen for the royal navy is an odious liberty, when not charged with any crime, and is limited by various private purposes, is punishable by imprisonment (see 17 & 18 Vict., statutes, and the wrongful carrying off and leaving behind seamen, for c. 104).

The general remedy for the unlawful detention of persons is by appliparents and guardians and others to the custody of children, alleged to cation to the courts of law for a writ of habeas corpus. The rights of education or otherwise are in this way frequently discussed and decided. have been wrongfully taken away or detained for the purposes of

enacts that if any person shall maliciously, by force or fraud, lead, The 9 Geo. IV., c. 21, which is directed against child-stealing, or take away, or decoy or entice away, or detain, a child under the age of ten years, with intent to deprive its parents, or any other person having the lawful care of such child, of the possession of it, or with intent to steal any article upon or about the person of such child, to whomsoever such article may belong, or shall receive and harbour with any such intent as aforesaid any such child, knowing that it has been by force or fraud led, taken, decoyed, enticed away, or detained, every such offender, and their counsellors, procurers, aiders, and abettors, shall be guilty of felony, and shall be liable to be transported for seven years, or to be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, in the common gaol or house of correction, for any time not