13. Evidence of increasing Interest in the British Islands

Polybius

The great History of POLYBIUS (b. circa 204 B.C.; d. 122 B.C.?) is chiefly devoted to the affairs of Greece, but it contains many allusions to the contemporaneous history of other countries. From the excerpt given, the increasing interest in and knowledge of the British Islands are apparent. Not only are these islands mentioned by name, but their connection with the tin trade is definitely stated.

Perhaps indeed some will enquire why, having made so long a discourse concerning places in Lybia and Iberia, we have not spoken more fully of the outlet at the Pillars of Hercules, nor of the exterior sea, and of the peculiarities which occur therein, nor yet indeed of the Bretannic Isles, and the working of tin; nor again, of the gold and silver mines of Iberia; concerning which writers, controverting each other, have discoursed very largely.

Polybii Historiarum libro III. c. 57, ed. Buttner-Wobst and Dindorf, Teubner

Text, 1882.)

14. First Roman Invasion of Britain

Cæsar

In the Commentaries on the Gallic War, by JULIUS CÆSAR (b. 100 B.C.; d. 44 B.C.) we possess an invaluable source of contemporary information concerning the first two invasions of Britain. Cæsar could speak not only authoritatively as being the leader of the Roman armies, but with clearness and accuracy as being an observant scholar.

These matters being arranged, finding the weather favourable for his voyage, he set sail about the third watch, and ordered the horse to march forward to the farther port, and there embark and follow him. As this was performed rather tardily by them, he himself reached Britain with the first squadron of ships, about the fourth hour of the day, and there saw the forces of the enemy drawn up in arms on all the hills. The nature of the place was this: the sea was confined by mountains so close to it that a dart could be thrown from their summit upon the shore. Considering this by no means a fit place for disembarking, he remained at anchor till the ninth hour, for the other ships to arrive there. Having in the meantime assembled the lieutenants and military tribunes, he told them both what he had learnt from Volusenus, and what he wished to be done; and enjoined them (as the principle of military matters, and especially as maritime affairs, which have a precipitate and uncertain action, required) that all things should be performed by them at a nod and at the

instant. Having dismissed them, meeting both with wind and tide favourable at the time, the signal being given and the anchor weighed, he advanced about seven miles from that place, and stationed his fleet over against an open and level shore.

But the barbarians, upon perceiving the design of the Romans, sent forward their cavalry and charioteers, a class of warriors of whom it is their practice to make great use in their battles, and following with the rest of their forces, endeavoured to prevent our men landing. In this was the greatest difficulty, for the following reasons, namely, because our ships, on account of their great size, could be stationed only in deep water; and our soldiers, in places unknown to them, with their hands embarrassed, oppressed with a large and heavy weight of armour, had at the same time to leap from the ships, stand amidst the waves, and encounter the enemy; whereas they, either on dry ground, or advancing a little way into the water, free in all their limbs, in places thoroughly known to them, could confidently throw their weapons and spur on their horses, which were accustomed to this kind of service. Dismayed by these circumstances and altogether untrained in their mode of battle, our men did not all exert the same vigour and eagerness which they had been wont to exert in engagements on dry land.

When Cæsar observed this, he ordered the ships of war, the appearance of which was somewhat strange to the barbarians and the motion more ready for service, to be withdrawn a little from the transport vessels, and to be propelled by their oars, and to be stationed a little toward the open flank of the enemy, and the enemy to be beaten off and driven away, with slings, arrows, and engines: which plan was of great service to our men: for the barbarians being startled by the form of our ships and the motions of our oars and the nature of our engines, which was strange to them, stopped, and shortly after retreated a little. And while our

men were hesitating [whether they should advance to the shore], chiefly on account of the depth of the sea, he who carried the eagle of the tenth legion, after supplicating the gods that the matter might turn out favourably to the legion, exclaimed, "Leap, fellow-soldiers, unless you wish to betray your eagle to the enemy. I, for my part, will perform my duty to the commonwealth and my general." When he had said this with a loud voice, he leaped from the ship and proceeded to bear the eagle toward the enemy. Then our men,

exhorting one another that so great a disgrace should not be incurred, all leaped from the ship. When those in the nearest vessels saw them, they speedily followed and approached the enemy.

The battle was maintained vigorously on both sides. Our men, however, as they could neither keep their ranks, nor get firm footing, nor follow their standards, and as one from one ship and another from another assembled around whatever standards they met, were thrown into great confusion. But the enemy, who were acquainted with all the shallows, when from the shore they saw any coming from a ship one by one, spurred on their horses, and attacked them while embarrassed; many surrounded a few, others threw their weapons upon our collected forces on their exposed flank. When Cæsar observed this, he ordered the boats of the ships of war and the spy sloops to be filled with soldiers, and sent them up to the succour of those whom he had observed in distress. Our men, as soon as they made good their footing on dry ground, and all their comrades had joined them, made an attack upon the enemy, and put them to flight, but could not pursue them very far, because the horse had not been able to maintain their course at sea and reach the island. This alone was wanting to Cæsar's accustomed success.

(Cæsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, book IV, c. 23-26.)

15. A Description of the Britons

Cæsar

The characteristics of the Britons and their country are well described by CESAR. He possessed keen perception and cool judgment, and he was accustomed to impartially record all which personal interests did not tempt him to colour.

The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they say that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the island itself: the maritime portion by those who had passed over from the country of the Belge for the purpose of plunder and making war; almost all of whom are called by the names of those states from which being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is countless, and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part very like those of the Gauls: the number of cattle is great. They use either brass or iron rings, determined at a certain weight, as their money. Tin is produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron; but the quantity of it

is small: they employ brass, which is imported. There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and fir. They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure. The climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the colds being less severe...

The most civilized of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent, which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the Gallic customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britains, indeed, dye themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first espoused when a virgin.

(Cæsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War, book V, c. 12, 14.)

16. The Characteristics of the Britons

Strabo

In the Fourth Book of the Geography of STRABO (b. circa 50 B.C.; d. 21 A.D.?) we find an interesting account of the British Islands and their inhabitants. Strabo gathers and reflects the opinions of the historians and geographers who preceded him, but he also adds much derived from his own research and observation. His description is not the less valuable because based on the accounts of Pytheas, Posidonius, Artemidorus, Ephorus, Timagenes, Aristotle, Polybius, Asinius, Pollio, and Cæsar.

...

The greatest portion of the island is level and woody, although many tracts are hilly. It produces corn, and cattle, and gold, and silver, and iron, which things are brought thence, and also skins and slaves, and dogs sagacious in hunting: and the Celti use these for the purposes of war also, as well as their native dogs. The men are taller than the Celti, with hair less yellow; and slighter in their persons. As an instance of their height, we ourselves saw at Rome some youths who were taller by so much as half a foot than the tallest there; but they were distorted in their lower limbs, and in other respects not symmetrical in their conformation. Their manners are in part like those of the Celti, though in part more simple and barbarous; insomuch that some of them, though possessing plenty of milk, have not skill enough to

make cheese, and are totally unacquainted with horticulture and other matters of husbandry. There are several states among them. In their wars they make use of chariots for the most part, as do some of the Celti. Forests are their cities: for having enclosed an ample space with felled trees, here they make themselves huts, and lodge their cattle, though not for any long continuance. Their atmosphere is more subject to rain than to snow; even in their clear days the mist continues a considerable time, insomuch that throughout the whole day the sun is only visible for three or four hours about noontime; and this must be the case also among the Morini and the Menapii, and among all the neighbouring people. The deified Cæsar twice passed over to the island, but quickly returned, having effected nothing of consequence, nor proceeded far into the country, as well on account of some commotions in Celtica, both among his own soldiers and among the barbarians, as because of the loss of many of his ships at the period of the full moon, when both the flux and reflux of the tides were greatly increased. Nevertheless he gained two or three victories over the Britons, although he had transported thither only two legions of his army, and brought away hostages, and slaves, and much other booty. At the present time, however, some of the princes there having, by their embassies and court, gained the friendship of Cæsar Augustus, have dedicated their offerings in the Capitol; and have brought the whole island into a state little short of intimate union with the Romans. They bear moderate taxes laid both on the imports and exports from Celtica; which are ivory bracelets and necklaces, amber, and vessels of glass, and such like mean merchandise; wherefore the island would be hardly worth a garrison, for it would require at least one legion and some cavalry to enforce tribute from them; and the total expenditure for the army would be equal to the additional revenue: for if a tribute were levied, of necessity the imposts must be diminished, and at the same time some dangers would be incurred if force were to be employed.

(Strabonis Geographiæ, lib. I., ed. Meineke, Teubner Text, 1866.)

17. The Tin Mines of Britain

Diodorus Siculus

The History, or Bibliotheca, of DIODORUS SICULUS was probably written in the last half of the first century of our era. The work has not been preserved in its entirety. From the fragments relating to Britain I have selected one which speaks of the tin trade of that island. It was to the product of its mines that Britain owed its earliest importance.