J. H. TIEFTRUNK.-" Philosoph. Untersuchungen über das Privat. u. Oeffentl. Recht, zur Erläuterung der metaphysischen Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre von Kant," 1797, 1798; "Beurtheilung der metaphys. Anfangsgründe der Tugendlehre von Kant," 1798, 1805.

C. F. HUNGAR.-"Der Sohn der Natur, oder Briefe über Endämonismus und Menschl. Glückseligkeit, in Beziehung auf das Kritisch. MoralSystem," 1802.

K. G. FURSTENAU.-" Ideen zu einer gemeinfasslichen Metaphysik der Sitten,” 1799.

J. C. HOFFBAUER.-" Staatsrecht, mit beiläufigen Anmerkungen über Kants metaphysiche Anfangsgründe des Rechts," 1797.

T. G. E. MAASS.-" Grundriss der Naturrechts," 1808; "Grundriss der Logik, zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen."

H. KUNHARDT.-"Skeptische Fragmente, oder Zweifel an der Möglichkeit einer Vollendeten Philosophie," 1806; "Kant's Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, in einer fasslichen Sprache dargestellt," 1808; "Ideen über den wesentlichen Character der Menschheit und über die Gränze der Philosoph. Erkenntniss," 1813.

G. HUFELAND.-" Versuch über den Grundsatz des Naturrechts nebst einem Anhange," 1785.

TH. SCHMALZ.-" Handbuch der Rechtsphilosophie," 1807.

A. FEUERBACH.-" Kritik des Natürl. Rechts," 1806.

K. S. ZACHARIÆ.- 66 Anfangsgründe des Philosoph. Privatrechts," 1804; "Anfangsgründe des Philosoph. Criminalrechts, nebst einem Anhange über jurist. Vertheidigungskunst," 1805.

K. H. GROOS.- "Lehrbuch der Philosoph. Rechtswissenschaft, oder Naturrechts."

T. H. G. HEUSINGER.-" Versuch einer Encyclopädie der Philosophie, verbunden mit einer pract. Anleitung zum Studium der Krit. Philosophie," 1796; "Ueber Fichte's Idealistisch-Atheistisches System,” 1799.

F. J. NIETHAMMER.-" Philosoph. Journal, für 1795."

F. H. C. SCHWARZ.-" Die Moral. Wissenschaften, ein Lehrbuch der Moralischen Religion u. Rechtslehre, nach den Gründen der Vernunft," 1797.

K. P. MORITZ.-"Aussichten zu einer experimental Seelen-Lehre," 1782; "Magazin zur Erfahrungen Seelen-Lehre," 1793, 1795.*

* See Note H. at the End of the Volume.

CHAPTER XXI.

METAPHYSICAL AUTHORS OF FRANCE DURING THE LATTER PART OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

IN casting a glance over the political, social, religious, and intellectual history of France, from the publication of the "Encyclopédie" to the termination of the last century, what a crowd of singular and important events transpired in that country. And when these events are viewed in conjunction with the history of metaphysical speculations, they assume a still more curious and interesting appearance. We find in every political epoch or crisis of the country, a corresponding change in the theoretical principles respecting the human mind. Politicians and metaphysicians, though commonly widely separated, have, nevertheless, in France been always bosom friends. They have acted and re-acted upon each other with surprising promptitude, sympathy, and power. Never in the history of mankind did purely abstract philosophical disquisitions exert so powerful

an influence over the every-day actions and feelings of great masses of people, as did the philosophy of the eighteenth century over the French nation. Here the mind of man became absolutely deified; it was transformed into a national Goddess, daily and hourly worshipped by enthusiastic but deluded admirers.

In the first indications of the national "movement" in France, we clearly perceive the influence of mental philosophy. It inspired, more or less, all the energetic and inquisitive minds of this eventful period. For the space of twenty years before the "new era" of 1789, France presents a long list of able men, who cultivated the science of mind, and based their social and political theories and movements upon their respective philosophical creeds. We have, as already noticed at some length, D'Alembert, Diderot, Voltaire, Turgot, Helvetius, &c., men of great influence, who were complete masters of the philosophy of the day, and who prided themselves not a little upon the extent of their speculative attainments. As political events hastened apace, the abstract doctrines of the learned were simplified and reduced to practice; they were pushed to their utmost logical limits; and formed at last the daily intellectual food of countless thousands of the people at the foot of the guillotine. Speculative frenzy, and reckless cruelty, became the order of the day. Every man had a ready apology or reason for his conduct, either for good or ill, in some philosophical theory, of which the deductions and

principles of his own mind formed the basis. Crowds were seen every day hurried to the place of execution, pluming themselves on the knowledge of some recondite metaphysical axiom, and supporting their hard and ignominious fate, with the consolatory anticipations of martyrdom to a philosophy which the world, at that moment, was unable to appreciate, and of which it was entirely unworthy. Thus every man set up the "Goddess of Reason" in his own mind, and worshipped her with the most frantic and abject submission.

The number of separate publications, great and small, which treated of sections of philosophical topics, during the first ten years after the commencement of the Revolution in 1789, was really prodigious. The Paris press literally teemed with them. They assumed all forms and shapes, from the halfpenny ballad to the imperial quarto. Every day issued in some new "theory of man," and of his intellectual powers and social relations. To give the names alone of this revolutionary brood, would fill a volume. We shall, therefore, pass them all over; contenting ourselves with giving in this chapter a brief sketch of some of the most distinguished writers of the period, whose works may fairly claim a suitable and respectful notice in any history of speculative opinions.

SAINT MARTIN.

The metaphysical works of this author are," Des Erreurs et de la Vérité," Lyons, 1775, in 8vo. ;