entered as Ephebi, for the out-College system seemingly was most in favour, and of the multitudes who flocked to Athens, and stayed there for long years, by far the most were unattached, choosing their own course of reading and their private tutors, without any check of examinations or degrees. It is time to turn to the character and methods of their studies, and to deal with the larger anl the most important sections of our subject.

29

CHAPTER II.

THE PROFESSORS OF PHILOSOPHY.

great

schools of

thought.

FEW subjects in Athenian history are better known The four than the characteristic features of the four great schools of thought, which differently developed the same Socratic teaching. This is not the place to describe their principles or method, or to ask how it was that such divergent streams of influence as those which flowed from Plato and from Aristotle, from Epicurus and from Zenon, can be ultimately traced to the same fountain head.. But it is more important for us to enquire how each maintained its separate existence, and organised itself in outward forms through which it acted on the world.

One of the first needs was, in each case, a sort of authorised version of their philosophic creed; but the written word was not enough: the writings of their founder, canonical as they might be, could not content them; they must have a living voice to expand and illustrate the truth, to stimulate by the contagious influence of strong conviction, and meet

The system objections from all quarters.

of succes

sion in the

It is not too much to

say, perhaps, that they believed in a sort of Apostoeach school, lical succession in their midst. Each master of the

masters of

religiously respected by the chief

members of the sect.

school was the living guardian of the Ark of Truth, in the fulness of an undivided trust, to be supreme in matters of the Faith.

Each handed on the lighted torch to his successor, that the sacred fire of truth might not be spent ; each, probably, believed himself to be the depository of unchanged traditions, though all the world of thought was on the move. He chose commonly another who might fill his place when he was gone. Sometimes he waited till his death-bed, sometimes before the ruling spirit passed away, the prophet's mantle fell on his successor's shoulders. Sometimes in his will he named a follower to replace him; or even put the office in commission for awhile, till the trusty few had made their choice. Once made, it seems to have been religiously respected by the rest. Some jealous criticism there may, perhaps, have been at times, by spirits more than commonly impatient; but it was seldom that any ventured to dispute his claims to their obedience, or to set up a rival oracle beside him. Many even of the greatest names appear to have waited quietly as greybeards, till a vacancy was made by death, and they were called to assume the foremost place.

1.

Of the long list of names recorded in the biographies of Diogenes Laertius, we hear only of one who set up for himself, when the head of his school was still alive. Chrysippus had so much vanity of self- D. L. vii. 7. assertion, or was so full of missionary zeal, that he made himself a master of the conferences while Cleanthes was still living. But in later days, we are told, he rued his fault, and owned that the one thing which he regretted was undutiful behaviour to his teacher. Another, Crantor, withdrew himself on D. L. iv. 5. grounds of health from the friendly company of sages, and it was expected that he would ere long be heard of as an independent teacher at the Asclepeium; but, the cure effected, he returned to the old lecture-halls, to swell the audience of his chief, till he was called at last to take the lead.

4.

lectured in

We have seen already that they chose for their They lectures and discussions the public buildings which the public were called gymnasia, of which there were several gymnasia. in different quarters of the city. They could only use them by the sufferance of the State, which had built them chiefly for bodily exercises and athletic feats. We do not hear if the trainers and the fencing masters resented the intrusion of the throngs of students, though it is likely that there were chances of collision. But we do hear, in one case, of complaints that their neighbours were disturbed. One

D.L. iv. 9.4. Gymnasiarch, or curator of the hall, had to beg Occasional Carneades not to talk so loudly to his pupils, as he complaints. was annoying other folks. How loudly may I speak, then?' said the lecturer, in impatience. 'Loud enough for your audience to hear,' was the retort; and perhaps the audience was not large, and the retort was somewhat sharp. Before long several of the schools drew themselves apart in special buildings, and even took their most familiar names, such as the Lyceum and the Academy, from the gymnasia, in which they made themselves at home.

Rudimentary forms of endow

ment in the Platonic sect.

De exilio,

10.

D. L. iv. 3. 5.

Gradually we find the traces of some material provisions, which helped to define and to perpetuate the different sects. Plato had a little garden, close by the sacred Eleusinian Way, in the shady groves of the Academy, which he bought, says Plutarch, for some 3,000 drachmæ.

There lived also his successors, Xenocrates and Polemon, the former of whom spent there so much the life of a recluse, as to leave it only for a single day each year, at the festival of the greater Dionysia, when the new plays were acted; while the latter gathered pupils round him, who listened to him as he walked under the trees, and who even had their little huts built there to live as near as might be round his garden. It was but a tiny glebe at first; but wealthier friends of learning added from time to