Arrowroot (Marantha Arundinacea). 66.25 Sago. 62.5 65°5 67'5 66.25 700 66.25 70'0 Pelouze and Fremy that starch cannot be detected in green Amylaceous Matter in Fruits.—It is asserted by fruits, either by means of the microscope or by iodine. M. Payen shows (Comptes-Rendus, t. liii. p. 813) that it can be easily recognised by iodine in the following way :He takes a thin slice off a growing pear, apple, or quince, plunges it under water to avoid the action of the air, and to wash away soluble matters, and when the washing is complete, puts it into a weak alcoholic solution of iodine. In an hour or two an intense blue colouration is produced. He also recognised starch granules by the microscope. One curious fact observed was, that as the fruit ripened the starch first disappeared from the neighbourhood of the peduncle. Gases given off by Plants under the Influence of Light.-M. Boussingault has discovered (ComptesRendus, t. liii., p. 862) that under the influence of direct sunlight the leaves of aquatic plants give off a notable proportion of carbonic oxide and carburetted hydrogen. He thinks that this emanation of carbonic oxide may be one of the causes of the unhealthiness of marshy districts. The fact he points out is important, and the subject will, no doubt, receive further investigation. Ethyl and Methyl Compounds of Tellurium.— Our readers will find in the Chemisches Centralblatt, No. 58, 1861, a long account of the above compounds extracted from an inaugural dissertation by Dr. Max Heeren. Experimenters may be glad to be informed that the most remarkable property of the tellurium methyl compounds is their intolerable and persistent odour. A small quantity, either of tellurium-methyl, or of a salt, allowed to get on the finger, soon communicates a smell to the whole body, and in a few days is perceptible in the breath. The stench is so lasting that the unfortunate chemist is shut out from society for several months. MISCELLANEOUS. Chemical Society.-The next meeting of this Society will take place on Thursday the 20th inst. Royal Institution. The following Lectures will be delivered in the ensuing week :-Tuesday, February 18, at three o'clock, John Marshall, Esq., "On the Physiology of the Senses." Thursday, February 20, at three o'clock, Professor Tyndall, "On Heat." Friday, February 21, at eight o'clock, James Fergusson, Esq., "On the Site of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem." Saturday, February 22, at three o'clock, Rev. A. J. D'Orsey, " On the English Language." Borax in Milk.-Professor Kletzinsky states that borax is often employed, to prevent milk from turning sour and to impart to it more consistence so as to make it appear more cream-like. This addition is detected in the ashes by boiling them with alcohol acidulated with sulphuric acid; the presence of boracic acid is ascertained from the brown colour of curcuma paper and from the green flame of the burning alcohol.-Polyt. Centralblatt, 1861, 224. To recognize Grape Sugar beside Cane Sugar.— O. Schmidt employs triacetate of lead and ammonia, which produce with both sugars white precipitates, which after a while, particularly when heated, assumes a red colour in the presence of grape sugar, but remains unaltered by cane sugar; a small quantity of the former mixed with a large proportion of the latter may thus be recognized by the red tint of the precipitate.—Ann, der Chem. und Pharm. cxix. 102. Influence of Silicic Acid on Fermentation.— J. C. Leuchs states that silicic acid precipitated from water glass, produces fermentation in saccharine solutions, particularly after the addition of some tartaric acid, and putrid yeast appears. generates the odour of beer yeast, afterwards of fruits, and finally of ether; in very dilute solutions the odour of Silicic acid does not lose this property by boiling with water or by repeated employment for fermenting and subsequent washing with water. A fermented briskly with silicic acid, from which the gas solution of sugar, containing alcohol and tartaric acid, Portfolio.-Dingler's Polyt. Journ. clxi. 400. was evolved, and amid the separation of a yeasty foam.— Protosulphate of Manganese, free from iron, is prepared by Delffs, by treating black oxide of manganese with washed sulphurous acid gas, which does not take up a trace of iron. Other bases besides iron must be removed by treating previously with dilute nitric acid.-Zeitschr. f. Ch. und Pharm. iii. Test for Gaseous Sulphurous Acid.-Hugo Schiff employs paper moistened with solution of protonitrate of mercury which instantly assumes a gray colour from reduced mercury; it is requisite to test with lead paper for sulphuretted hydrogen. Both gases are not present at the same time, as they decompose each other.-Dingler's Journal. Death of M. Biot.-We have to record the decease of Mons. Jean Baptiste Biot, the eminent French chemist, and the Father of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, which happened on Tuesday week, at the age of eighty-eight. Born in 1774, he early devoted himself to the study of chemistry and natural science, and owing to his great proficiency, was elected into the French Academy so far back as 1803, when less than thirty years of age. The Father of Modern Science in Paris, and beloved by all who knew him, M. Biot's life has been singularly uneventful; only a year ago he was described as being still as devoted to his favourite pursuits as ever, and as having recently contributed to "Les Annales de Chemie," an introduction to some "Researches in Mechanical Chemistry, in which Polarized Light is employed as a re-agent by way of an Auxiliary." He has also experimented on various solutions, and in the "Anuales" given accurate and interesting tables of results. M. Biot's death will cause in Parisian society a void which will not readily be filled up. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. All Editorial Communications are to be addressed to the EDITOR; and Advertisements and Business Communications to the PUBLISHER at the Office, 1, Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, London, E.C. next number. Obliged Correspondent.-We will give the desired information in our J. Walker.-We shall always be pleased to receive accounts of new facts, but we cannot undertake to insert mere discussion. The matter had better drop. Hart.-We do not know the address. Apply to Mr. Ladd, whose address will be found in our advertising columns. F.R.S.-The process was published in our second volume. You have probably not seen it, or you would have been saved some trouble. THE CHEMICAL NEWS. VoĽ. V. No. 116.—February 22, 1862. IN my last communication I detailed the principal phenomena of solidification of a sample of butter, beef dripping, mutton dripping, and lard. But as our object is to ascertain in what way pure butter may be distinguished from the adulterated, I cannot do wrong in adding briefly the results of similar experiments upon other samples of butter. Fifth Experiment.-Pure butter (purchased). The physical characters were detailed in my last paper. 20 grains left 1.8 grains of residue when heated for an hour with ether at 65°. On melting in the tube an abundance of air-bubbles rose slowly and formed an abundant froth on the top. (I ought not to have omitted this among the characteristics also of the butter which was the subject of the first experiment.) 1 At 171° the liquid was cloudy from the presence of a strongly-marked generally-diffused flocculence. Thermometer only obscurely visible, but here and there, between the flocculi, the mercurial column could be seen. These flocculi rapidly subsided and very perfectly, so that in 25 minutes and at 120° they had formed a dense deposit at the bottom of the tube about the bulb, while all above was bright and clear. After 83 minutes and at 78° the bright clearness of the liquid was somewhat dimmed; and after 104 minutes and at 72° it was decidedly more eloudy, and minute points had begun to appear in it, but the markings on thermometer were still quite legible. After 115 minutes and at 70° these opaque points had so much increased in abundance and size, that the readings on thermometer were becoming obscure. After 120 minutes and at 69° they were still legible; but after 125 minutes and at 68° were not only illegible, but scarcely visible. After 137 minutes and at 66° the thermometer itself was invisible except in a narrow line at the top of the liquid, the presence of which showed a certain gravitation of the opaque points. After 155 minutes and at 64° the loaded tube could be raised one inch out of the water, but then slipped. After 165 minutes and at 63° it could be raised no higher, and was now left. When examined again, at the expiration of 210 minutes, and at 59°, it could be raised completely out of the water and oscillated. Sixth Experiment.-Butter, newly churned and unsalted, procured from a farm near Hatfield, of a pale straw-colour and sweet butyraceous odour and taste, brittle at 40°. When melted in the beaker with boiling water and stirred, the liquid came up very frothy, and very delicately cellulated, and opaque-looking at the edge. When cold and dried it broke down on pressure into a fine mealiness of pure butyraceous taste. Residue from treatment with 3j. of ether for an hour at 65°, 4 grains. Raised in the tube to 169°, an abundant froth arose occuping the extent of about inch. The liquid was bright and clear, only a small amount of flocculi scattered in it, but the markings on the thermometer were quite clearly legible. After 18 minutes and at 127° the flocculi had mostly fallen to the bottom of the tube. After 21 minutes and at 121° the whole of the liquor was somewhat dimmed, the lower part more distinctly so than the upper. After 41 minutes and at 109° this dimness had increased to a decided milkiness, but the markings were still legible. After 68 miuutes and at 88° this had increased so much that the markings were illegible, although the mercurial column and numbers were still visible. The milkiness was not punctiform. After 90 minutes and at 78° the markings on thermometer were scarcely visible, but a trifling clear line had appeared as to the top of the liquid. After 106 minutes and at 73° points were observed in the clouded liquid which, after 116 minutes and at 72° rendered both the numbers and mercurial column invisible. After 121 minutes and at 71° the thermometer was obscurely visible only at the upper part, and was sufficiently fixed to permit the loaded tube to be moved about in the water by means of it. After 131 minutes and at 69°, the thermometer being for the last five minutes obscured from view, the loaded tube could be raised one inch out of the water; and after 156 minutes and at 65° it could be raised completely out and oscillated without slipping. Seventh Experiment.-Butter newly churned and unsalted, procured from another farm near Hatfield, of a pale straw-colour, and sweet butyraceous odour and taste. Crumbly at 40°. When melted with boiling water in the beaker and stirred, the liquid came up very frothy and finely cellulated, a very few larger cellulations interspersed; edge of melted liquid opaque-looking. When the cake was removed and dried it broke down into very fine grains, one or two rather larger grains being here and there visible. Taste purely butyraceons. Residue from 5j ether, 5'3 grains. Raised in tube to 170° the liquid was so opaque that the thermometer could scarcely be seen. The opacity was occasioned by small opaque flocculi and flocculent points. An abundant froth rose to the surface. After 801755 A 20 minutes and at 125° the flocculi had aggregated very decidedly; the thermometer was more visible, and the commencing formation of a clear line at the top indicated commencing gravitation. After 83 minutes and at 78° the "clear" layer had nearly attained the depth of half an inch, and now became slightly dimmed. After 104 minutes and at 729 fine points appeared in the "clear" layer. After 116 minutes and at 70° these had become much larger and more numerous, but the markings on thermometer were still legible. After 126 minutes and at 68° they were illegible, but with mercurial column still visible. After 131 minutes and at 67° they were all invisible. After 145 minutes and at 65° the thermometer, having been for some time invisible, was not yet sufficiently fixed to enable the loaded tube to be raised to the surface of the water. It was now left until the lapse of 181 minutes, when at 619 it could be raised out of water, and oscillated without slipping. Eighth Experiment.-Butter newly churned and unsalted, procured from a third farm near Hatfield, was of a much paler straw colour, but of sweet butyraceous odour and taste; firmer and less brittle than the last two samples at 40°. When melted with boiling water in the beaker and stirred, it came up very finely cellular indeed, and opaque-looking at the edge. When cold and dried it broke down into a very fine mealiness, of pure butyraceous taste. Residue from 3j. of ether at 65° 3'2 grains. Raised to 170° it was very frothy on the surface and liquid was cloudy from flocculent points and some large flocculi, but the mercurial column and figures on thermometer were visible, though the latter could not be read. After 5 minutes and at 158° the solid matter in the liquid had become distinctly flocculent, and a clear line was beginning to form at the top; and after 18 minutes at 128° the flocculi were large and scattered in a bright clear liquid, while the markings on thermometer could be read clearly. After 36 minutes and at 105° the flocculi had become almost all deposited about the bulb, leaving the liquid nearly free from them. After 76 minutes and at 81° liquid slightly dimmed. After 89 minutes and at 77° points were visible in the clear layer, and after 102 minutes and at 74° these had increased sufficiently to render the markings on thermometer scarcely legible. After 107 minutes and at 73° they and mercurial column were quite invisible. After 114 minutes and at 72° the thermometer was invisible, but not yet fixed. After 193 minutes and at 621° the loaded tube could only now be raised one inch out of water, and then slipped. After 216 minutes and at 60 no more complete fixing had taken place. It was now left. It will be well to summarise the results of the experiments upon these five samples of pure butter. First: in all of them there were two kinds of solid matter, the one flocculent, appearing either as flocculi from the first or becoming so very early in the cooling. These flocculi took different appearances, were of different amounts, and deposited more or less differently, and with different degrees of rapidity in the several samples. In fact, they are accidental ingredients of butter, consisting of particles of caseine, which element of the butter is at 65° 5'3 at 65° 3°2 at 65° Grs. of Grs. of caseine, washed butter. 2 in 20 ⚫6 in 20 '4 in 20 ether at 65° consists of this impurity, as the latter only It cannot, therefore, be said that the residue from existed in it to a very small amount, and the residue was not even proportional to the amount of caseine it contained. But the proportion of caseine in the several samples of butter did agree with the degree of flocculence observed in the newly melted samples. Second: the other solid matter which appeared was the margarine from its solution in the liquid elements of the butter. of the butter, which deposited at a certain temperature Its first deposition was marked by the earliest indication of dimming in the clear liquid, and more strongly by the first formation of opaque points in it. The "richness" of butter is partly dependent on these liquid elements, and is hence so far proportional to the lowness of the temperature at which the margarine deposits from it. Third, the temperature at which the various changes in appearance of the melted butter took place appears in the following table :— Experi- liquid Opaque meter ment. dimmed. points. First Fifth Sixth Seventh Clear Thermo- Raised inch out of water. invisible. 78° 69° 66° 72° 621 81° Completely raised and oscillated. 55°, and probably higher 59 65° 61. below 60° Eighth The highest temperature at which dimming of the clear liquid occurred was 121°, which is close upon what is regarded as the melting point of margarine (118°). In the other cases it occurred at much lower temperatures. The highest point at which the opacity became punctiform was 77°. The highest point at which the thermometer became invisible in the "clear" layer was 72°. The highest temperature at which it was so fixed as to allow of the loaded tube being raised so that the surface of the butter in it stood one inch above the level of the water in the beaker was 69°. The highest temperature at which it became so firmly fixed as to allow of its being raised completely out of the water and oscillated without slipping was 65°. The shortest time which elapsed before the final result was attained was 156 minutes, but mostly it was much longer. I proceed now to the results of similar experiments with butter (that used in first experiment) adulterated with beef fat, mutton fat, and lard. Ninth Experiment.-Butter adulterated with onefourth of beef dripping (e of Second Communication), residue from 3j. ether 40 grs. Raised to 170° the liquid presented little frothiness; a trifling milkiness was observable through which the markings on thermometer were quite legible. After CHEMICAL NEWS, Feb. 22, 1862. On the Adulteration of Butter with Animal Fats. 85 minutes and at 79° the markings were illegible; bulb and lower part of stem of thermometer more obscured than the rest. After 88 minutes and at 78° numbers and mercurial column invisible. After 96 minutes and at 76° thermometer wholly invisible, but not yet fixed. After 111 minutes and at 73° the loaded tube could be raised nearly above the water. After 115 minutes and at 71° it could be completely raised out of the water, and oscillated without slipping. In an experiment in which the same butter, but a different sample of dripping, was used, the points of the original cloudiness aggregated into flocculi at 140o, which gravitated as in pure butter, leaving a narrow, clear, bright layer, which began to become cloudy at 75°. The loaded tube could be raised out of water, and oscillated without slipping at 72°. Tenth Experiment.-Butter adulterated with onefourth of mutton dripping (f of Second Communication), residue with 3j. ether 40 grs. Raised to 171° only trifling frothiness; liquid turbid from generally diffused minute points; thermometer only just visible. After 13 minutes and at 135° points aggregating into an universal fine flocculence; thermometer slightly more distinct. After 39 minutes and at 105° a clear layer had formed at top of liquid by subsidence of the flocculi, to the extent of about 1th inch. After 99 minutes and at 78° this clear layer had arrived at a depth of nearly 3rds inch, and the clear bright liquid was beginning to become slightly dimmed. After 108 minutes and at 77° fine opaque points began to appear in it. After 115 minutes and at 751° they had increased so much as to render the markings on thermometer illegible, though still visible. After 123 minutes and at 74° the stem of thermometer was itself invisible; and after 143 minutes and at 72° the loaded tube could be raised out of the water and oscillated, even before the top portion had become absolutely impervious to light. This specimen was re-melted on the following day, and on cooling gave similar results. Eleventh Experiment.-Butter adulterated with onefourth of lard (g of Second Communication), residue from 3j. ether 20 grs. Raised to 173 there was very little frothiness; liquid turbid from presence of fine points; thermometer visible, but not the markings on it. After 6 minutes and at 157° the turbidity was assuming the form of a fine flocculence, and the thermometer was now distinctly visible. After 41 minutes and at 105° the fine flocculence had gravitated sufficiently to form a narrow clear layer at top of the liquid; and the mercurial column was visible in places between the flocculi. After 125 minutes and at 76°, during which time the subsidence of the flocculi had been going on, the clear bright layer had reached nearly 1 inch in depth, and at this temperature began to become somewhat dimmed. After 132 minutes and at 75° the mistiness was observed to be in fine points; the markings on thermometer still legible, but mistily. After 141 minutes and at 74° the stem of thermometer in upper part still obscurely visible, and the loaded tube could be ΙΟΙ raised by the thermometer to the level of the water; at 73° the stem was invisible; and after 148 minutes and at 73° the loaded tube could be raised 1 inch above the level of the water; and after 168 minutes and at 70° it could be supported completely out of the water, and oscillated without slipping. Another experiment was made with butter adulterated with an equal weight of beef fat (d of Second Communication). Flocculi formed and deposited, leaving a clear bright liquid, which after 85 minutes and at 79 was so opaque with minute opaque points, that the markings on the thermometer were scarcely legible. After 88 minutes and at 78° it had so rapidly increased, that only the stem of thermometer, at the upper part of tube (above deposited flocculi), was obscurely visible; and after 96 minutes and at 76° the thermometer being lost to view, the loaded tube could be raised about 1 inch above level of water; and after 116 minutes and at 71° it could be supported completely out of the water, and oscillated without slipping. From all these observations it appears that the consistency of a sample of butter may be used as one of the tests of its adulteration with foreign fats. 1. These samples of adulterated butter were all much less frothy when melted than the pure samples. 2. The lowest temperature at which the "clear" liquid became dimmed was 75°. This, then, is useless as a test. 3. The lowest temperature at which the opacity became punctiform was 75°. This, then, is only a test of purity when the points appear at lower temperatures, such as 72° or 73°. 4. The lowest point at which the thermometer became invisible in "clear" layer was 73°. This is 19 higher than the highest temperature at which it became lost to view in the pure butter examined, and 70 higher than the lowest. The obscuring of the thermometer at much lower temperatures, then, may be assumed to be an indication of purity, and, at higher temperatures, of adulteration. 5. The lowest temperature at which the loaded tube could be raised so as to bring the level of the butter one inch above that of water in the beaker was 73°. ́ This is 4° higher than in any sample of pure butter examined, and it is to be regarded as a test of adulteration when the temperature at which the tube can be thus raised is 73° or upwards. 6. The lowest temperature at which the loaded tube could be raised and supported thoroughly out of the water was 71°. This is 6o higher than that at which any sample of pure butter examined could be similarly supported, and hence we may probably conclude that when butter is thus supported at 71° or upwards it is adulterated with at least one-fourth of some foreign fat. 7. The greatest number of degrees requisite for the temperature to fall from the appearance of opaque points to the final complete fixation of the thermometer was, in samples adulterated with one-fourth of mutton fat, beef fat, or lard, 5°. (The ninth experiment is exceptional, inasmuch as the clouding was punctiform almost from the first, no clear layer being formed at all.) In the sample adulterated with an equal weight of beef fat it was 8°; but here the points appeared at 79°. The smallest number of degrees of fall in temperature between the appearance of opaque points and complete fixation in the unadulterated samples was 8°; but in this sample the points did not appear till 73°. In other samples the fall requisite varied from II° to 20°. 8. The greatest length of time which elapsed before complete fixation of the thermometer was 168 minutes. This, then, is only a test of purity when the length of time is considerably in excess of this; and of impurity, when considerably short of it. [The temperature of Laboratory varied from 45° to 60°.] Islington Parochial Laboratory, January 28. On the Preparation of Silicium, by J. ROBBINS. A SHORT time ago, requiring rather a large quantity of pure silicium, I made some according to the method usually described in chemical works,-viz., by heating together potassium with the double fluoride of silicium and potassium. Sodium at the present time being comparatively cheap, I thought it worth a trial to see if it could not be substituted for the more expensive metal, potassium. The experiment was, therefore, made, using the former precisely in the same manner as the latter. The reaction with sodium appeared just as energetic, and the fused mass indicated a favourable result; but, after washing in hot and cold water, and drying, I obtained a light grey powder totally different from that obtained by potassium. may The NEWS separated by hydrochloric acid. The proportions employed were, sodium 1 part, zinc 4 parts, fluoride of silicium, and potassium a sufficient quantity. An excess of the latter is of no consequence, as it can be readily separated at the end of the process, and may be used in a second operation. On the Preparation of Silicium, by Captain CARON. Dried silico-fluoride of potassium Sodium, in small pieces 300 · 400 80 These proportions are not absolutely necessary, but they seem to give the best yield of silicium. The mixture thus made is projected into a crucible, which, along with its cover, is red-hot. The reaction is brisk, although, when the cover is not sufficiently hot, it is often neces sary to press the mixture with a clay pipe. When the whole is liquid, the crucible is removed and allowed to cool. It is necessary to execute the operation as rapidly as possible, otherwise the crucible is liable to be perforated, and part of the zinc and silicium lost. zinc, which will have settled down well if the operation The cooled crucible is broken, to extract the ingot of Deville has published a process by which sodium has been successful; the crystallised silicium is almost be advantageously substituted for potassium by intro-entirely at the upper part of the zinc. The pieces of ducing, at the same time, aluminium; by this process the crucible and scori adhering to the regulus are the product is obtained in a crystalline form, and is, I removed, and the latter is melted at as low a temperature believe, the one generally adopted in France for obtain- as possible, so that the zinc is liquid while the silicium ing diamant de silicon (crystallised silicium). is solid. The zinc is run out and granulated, and can aluminium and sodium are ordered to be cut up into be used for another operation; crystals of silicium small pieces, and well incorporated with the fluoride of remain in the crucible surrounded by a little zinc. This silicium and potassium. On applying heat, combination residue is treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, takes place, the fused aluminium is separated, digested left still containing a little lead (if the zinc was not which removes zinc and iron, and crystallised silicium is in hydrochloric acid, and washed, the residue being pure quite pure), and always a little protoxide of silicium. crystallised silicium. Deville being so much interested in aluminium, and The lead is removed by boiling with strong nitric acid always having it at band, naturally gives it the pre- and washing, and the protoxide of silicium, as well as ference, although he says zinc may be substituted for it any of the mass of the crucible, are removed by treatand employed in the same manner, first reducing the ment with hydro-fluosilicic acid. The pure silicium which zine to a fine powder, and intimately blending it with remains is washed with water and dried. the double fluoride. In consequence of the high price of aluminium, I selected zine for my experiment, but, in procuring crystals, did not meet with the success I anticipated; at the end of the process the zinc, instead of being fused into a button, remained disseminated throughout the mass; after digesting in hydrochloric acid very good amorphous silicium was obtained. It then struck me that a better plan would be to place the sodium and zinc powder together, and surround them completely with the double fluoride, as probably the two metals would first combine together, and afterwards re-act on the powder. Whether this theory be correct or not, in practice it answered perfectly. I proceeded as follows :-A crucible was about two-thirds filled with fluoride of silicium and potassium, a hole was made in the centre pressing the powder against the side of the vessel; zinc, in fine powder, was then thrown in, on which was placed the sodium; the remaining zinc was added so as to completely surround the sodium. The crucible was then nearly filled with the double fluoride. On application of heat combination takes place energetically, but without loss of sodium, if well covered with the powder. The zinc is found fused into a mass at the bottom filled with acicular crystals of pure silicium, which are readily To melt this silicium, it is mixed with silico-fluoride been previously covered with a thick layer of coarselyof potassium and placed in a double crucible, having Powdered glass. It is next heated to the melting-point of iron for some time, and is then immersed, while hot, in cold water, in order to render the glass more friable. The crucible is then carefully broken, and the globule of silicium is found surrounded by glass, which is easily removed either by a hammer or by means of a sharp-pointed steel. To purify it completely, it must be boiled for some time with concentrated hydro-fluoric acid, which completely removes any slag, provided it is not in the centre of the regulus. The only acid which attacks melted or crystallised silicium is nitro-fluoric acid.-Phil. Mag. and Ann. de Chim, et de Phys. On the Analyses of Aluminous Minerals, or Bauxite, 1 Annales de Chim. et de Phys., Ixi. p. 318. |