Imatges de pàgina
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many other powerful thinkers and actors, to render it the proudest age of our national glory. And we thoughtlessly admit on our imagination this splendid exhibition as in some measure involving or implying the collective state of the people in that age." And how much pernicious error has, in like manner, resulted from admitting the impression that every wise man has been always wise, every great man always great, and every good man always good.

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Next falls to be noticed the assuming of premises as THE paying of wages to working men is a very simple the basis of a conclusion really identical with it, or the matter, yet it is seldom properly performed. The employing of two propositions alternately, the one to prove custom is for the employer to keep the money in his the other. This is called reasoning in a circle. Thus, hands till late on Saturday evening, and then pay it some mechanicians attempt to prove (what they over to his men. A monstrous injustice is perpetrated ought to lay down as a probable but doubtful hypo- by detaining wages in this manner till the very close thesis) that every particle of matter gravitates equally; of the last day of the week. On Saturday night all why? because those bodies which contain more parthe regular markets are terminated, and workmen and ticles ever gravitate more strongly, that is, are heavier. their wives are therefore either compelled to put up But (it may be urged), those which are heaviest are with the leavings of all the rest of the community, or not always more bulky.' 'No; but still they contain to buy from a class of shops in which articles are more particles, though more closely condensed.' How dearer than in those of a first-rate order. For our do you know that?' Because they are heavier.' part, we cannot see why an operative should not have 'How does that prove it?' Because all particles of it in his power to lay out his income of twenty shilmatter gravitating equally, that mass which is speci-lings weekly, with as much mercantile advantage as fically the heavier must needs have the more of them any gentleman who lays out ten times the sum. in the same space;" which first is just the point let any person, in easy circumstances, fancy the idea for which proof is demanded. of postponing his weekly supplies of food, and other articles in common use, till seven or eight o'clock on the Saturday night, and then sallying forth among all sorts of mean establishments, picking up goods, at not only an advance on regular prices, but generally of an inferior quality. And yet the practice of paying wages on Saturday evenings dooms thousands of families to this comfortless and thriftless mode of procedure. We repeat, it is fraught with injustice, and should at once be every where abolished.

Once more: It may be assumed that a position must be false because of certain consequences supposed to follow from it. These consequences may not follow. The truth of Galileo's astronomical theory did not infer the falsehood of the Scriptures, but merely the falsehood of the received interpretation of them. Or they may follow, and the position still be tenable. To have alleged that Galileo's theory was inconsistent with the Ptolemaic system of the universe, would have been true, but nugatory.

To the same head we may refer the argumentum ad hominem, or reasoning addressed to individual opinions, circumstances, &c., when unfairly employed; and all similar appeals to the prejudices and passions.

The above is not offered as a complete list of all the cases which we think resolvable into the fallacy of assumption, but merely as an index to its more common varieties. An adroit sophist will sometimes, without recourse to any other disguise than that of well-feigned perplexity, palm upon us, wholly unsuspicious of deception, a statement which, but for this artifice, had been the first to be tested. Perhaps the most memorable example on record of this species of legerdemain is that of the inquiry addressed by some wag to the Royal Society. That body was required to assign the reason why a vessel of water became no heavier by the mergement of a live fish; and, instead of proceeding to ascertain the reality of the alleged fact, the members betook themselves to the hopeless task of inventing hypotheses to account for it.

The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion appears in two shapes.

First, A position may be proved altogether different from that which ought to be established, although the sophist designs it to be mistaken for the other. Thus Horne Tooke, in the Diversions of Purley, would have us infer the falsity of our common notions respecting the first principles of morals, by showing that the terms right, just, true, only point, if their etymology be consulted, to what is ordered, commanded, trowed. But to prove this is by no means tantamount to proving that there are no such things as immutable morality and eternal truth. Byron is reported to have said, that "he had met with so many whose conduct differed from the principles they professed, and who seemed to profess those principles either because they were paid to do so, or from some other motive which an intimate acquaintance with their character would enable one to detect, that altogether he had seen few, if any, whom he could rely upon as truly and conscientiously believing the Scriptures. Was not this conclusion intended to be taken as equivalent to another-namely, that there were few persons in the world sincerely entertaining these convictions?

Secondly, The proof of part of a position may be substituted for proof of the whole. Thus, if an insufficient argument, accompanied by several valid ones, be detached from the rest, and refuted singly, the sophist may plausibly insinuate that he has done enough to destroy the entire body of evidence. Or, again, to prove that certain inconveniences attach to a particular system, or that certain defects adhere to a particular institution, may with many minds pass as equivalent to the position that the system should be abandoned and the institution abolished. Instances of such artifices must occur readily to every one.

On the advantages of systematic acquaintance with the various modes of false reasoning, it is not our purpose to dilate. While rules on this head may to some be useless, and to others perhaps superfluous; while dullness may often fail to grasp, and genius sometimes dart ahead of them

"Seizing each point by native force of mind,
While puzzled Logic blunders far behind"-

to the medium order of spirits, at least, if thoroughly studied and habitually applied, they will infallibly

* Foster's Essay on Popular Ignorance. Whateley's Logic.

Moore's Byron, vol. vi.

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was nearly twelve hundred. They executed the national anthem with great precision and effect; and, indeed, upon few occasions has such a powerful and wellorganised chorus been brought together. Although some of the pupils had not received more than two months' instruction, yet difficult pieces of music were admirably executed by them.

A system by which uncultivated men may sing beautifully in chorus, although three months before they did not know a single note, must naturally excite some attention, and we think that a brief explanation of the mode adopted by M. Mainzer must prove of interest to our readers. As soon as the elementary course is finished, a second or superior class is imme diately formed, so as to conduct the pupils to the higher branches of the science. The first course consists of fifteen lessons, at the end of which the pupils can sing choruses in a very creditable manner. They manifest great energy and enthusiasm. Many of them will teach their companions so far as they themselves have proceeded, and then bring them to the classes. One person, a woman, comes thirty miles every week to receive a lesson. Many of the pupils attend two or three classes in the course of the week. One workman, in particular, attends a class every night. Six nights in the week does this industrious individual come to the various class-rooms, distant four, five, and six miles from each other. By way of proof of the estimation in which M. Mainzer is held by his pupils, we may mention that he frequently receives addresses of thanks, letters, and complimentary poetry from them, which, if not exhibiting much literary ability, yet manifest much honest gratification and gratitude. The manual employed by M. Mainzer for the instruction of his pupils, is a book of his own, called Singing for the Million, the lessons of which are on an easy and progressive scale, by means of which the study is much simplified. Within a recent period, a small publication has been established, under the auspices of M. Mainzer, called the National Circular, the object of which is to record the progress of his system, and its effects upon his pupils.

From the very commencement of M. Mainzer's labours, there seems to have been a due appreciation of the value of his system. For instance, at the Mechanics' Institution, the following was the ratio of the increase of his pupils. On the first evening, the number was 120; on the second, 250; on the third, 350; on the fourth, 400; and we are happy to say that the number continues progressively to in

crease.

But the practice is attended with worse results. It has a decided tendency to demoralise, and is now, in point of fact, demoralising no small portion of the working-classes. Saturday night brings with it a certain holiday humour. No work is to be done on the morrow, and we may give ourselves up to a little recreation. This recreation, it is almost unnecessary to say, takes too frequently the form of drinking exhilarating beverages-in short, from less to more, the man, forgetful of home and its demands, gets tipsy. The result is well known. The condition of some of our large towns on Saturday night and Sunday morning is fearful. Mr Alison, sheriff of Lanarkshire, says, in one of his works, that in Glasgow "from ten to twenty thousand workmen are more or less intoxicated every Saturday, and for most part of Sunday." Think of a The intention of M. Mainzer is to give periodical town with ten thousand men drunk in it at one time. festivals, where the classes will assemble in the same Against the demoralisation produced by this state of manner as upon the occasion alluded to in Stone things, the most ingeniously contrived schemes, for Street. The progress of the working-classes in muthe benefit of the lower orders, can scarcely make sical education will there be fairly and fully developed. head. Yet it is worth while making an effort. We It is almost impossible to conceive how much good are far from saying that the payment of wages on will be effected by giving to the artisan such ennobling Friday would produce sobriety, but we feel assured it pleasures, instead of the degrading ones to which, in would contribute largely to that result; for the oblitoo many instances, he now has recourse. The abgation to return to work on Saturday would lessen sence of musical taste, and an ignorance of the solid the desire to go astray, and a habit of refraining from pleasure and improvement to be derived from the indulgence, on receiving wages, would have its due cultivation of the science, have long been a reproach to weight in improving the general habits of the indi-England, enlightened as she is. M. Mainzer, however, seems destined to remove this blot from our intellectual reputation.

vidual.

Little more need be said on this not unimportant subject. The conductors of the present sheet have long followed the practice of paying all who are in their employment on Friday afternoon, and, as they believe, with benefit to the persons concerned. We should be glad to find the same plan generally followed; and, in particular, recommend the subject to the consideration of all societies designed to promote temperance and social order.

MUSICAL EDUCATION FOR THE PEOPLE.

The beneficial effects of music in allaying bad passions and eliciting the better attributes of the human mind, have been long acknowledged. If it be an exaggeration to say that it "hath charms to soothe the savage breast, to soften rocks, and bend the knotted oak," at least it is admitted to have a genial influence upon our nature. It remained for the present age to bring into practice the theory of instructing the masses in this delightful science. Formerly, the study of it was confined to the rich, the educated, and those who cultivated it for their daily bread; but within a recent period an attempt was made by Joseph Mainzer, an enlightened German, to inspire the workingclasses on the Continent, and the people generally, with a taste for singing. He was so successful at Paris, that he had numerous classes of labouring men, who, after a short period, were able to sing in harmony with great power and precision.

Within the past year, M. Mainzer came to England, and, by dint of perseverance, aided by genius and industry, he has succeeded in establishing classes for the instruction of labouring men in singing. There are now daily classes in London; and it augurs favourably of the good sense and intelligence of the people, to be able to say that they have joined these classes in great numbers, and in a short time have made very rapid progress in the first principles of harmony. About a the Music-Hall, Stone Street, Bedford Square, and ago, there was a gathering of all the classes at the efficiency exhibited by the pupils gave great satis

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faction to a number of musical and literary celebrités, who were specially invited to be witnesses of M. Mainzer's success in developing and forwarding the musical capabilities of the multitude. The number of singers

M. Mainzer has already established a class at Brighton, and it is his intention to do the same in other provincial towns. At Brighton, he has been quite as successful as in the metropolis. His classes at Brighton increase in numbers, and the journals of that town attest the fact of the rapid progress of his pupils in the art of singing. Six hundred persons of all ranks, from humble mechanics to exalted fashionables, attended his very first lecture. It is not our intention at present to enter at length upon the doctrine which M. Mainzer professes; but we may remark, that his theory is shortly this. He contends that Nature has not only given to every human being a voice, but that each individual, if he cultivate that voice properly (and it may be done with ease), may become a good singer. It is true that some people have a finer voice than others, but he maintains that all may improve their voice, and acquire what is called an ear for music, by practice. The faculty of voice is, as he contends, susceptible of a higher or lower degree of development, by means of more or less practice. The truth of this theory has been demonstrated to a great extent by the progress which M. Mainzer's pupils have made. But to return to M. Mainzer's labours at Brighton.

He explained, at one of his lectures in that town, that all persons could make one tone, and this was sol (G in the treble clef), and this he called the speak ing note. He made his pupils sing this note five times in a bar. They then rose one tone, to la (A, treble clef); after exercising them, they proceeded to si (B, the major third), and so to do (C, the fourth). They were then exercised in the scale downwards, and they effected all his lessons with great ease. M. Mainzer then illustrated the use of time, which he did in a peculiar mode. He does not use the old terms of breve, semibreve, crotchets, &c., but calls them whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, &c.

system, the chief point of which is the attempt to We have thus given an outline of M. Mainzer's teach persons to sing scientifically from notes, with

as much ease as they are taught to read. His system is addressed principally to the humbler classes, from the excessive cheapness of the terms, which do not exceed the sum of three-halfpence per lesson.

Into the difficult question of the capability of the human voice, we do not propose to enter; contenting ourselves with repeating the principle for which M. Mainzer contends, that the register or compass of every one's voice may, by care, attention, and perseverance, be so regulated or improved as to enable all to sing with a certain degree of proficiency. Singing is certainly a beautiful accomplishment; and if, as M. Mainzer says, there is no nation on the Continent where the people possess such fine musical voices as he meets with among the workmen in England, it is not too much to anticipate that he will not be deceived in his desire to found a popular school of music, which may lead to the extensive dissemination of a taste for music among the labouring population of this country.

A FEW WEEKS ON THE CONTINENT.
BADEN-EN-SUISSE TO ZURICH.

THIS was a short journey. A forenoon's ride from the baths of Baden, by a road pursuing the left bank of the Limmat, brought us to Zurich. A part of the country through which we passed still belonged to the canton of Argau, which, occupying a situation between Basle and Zurich, is distinguished chiefly for its agriculture and the abundance of its fruits and vegetables. The slips of level in the valley of the Limmat were under active processes of husbandry; farm-establishments and cottages were here and there passed; and the eye, glancing upwards, travelled over sloping hill-sides covered to the top with the richest verdure, and dotted over with green bushy trees. Pleased as we were with the various evidences of rural prosperity, our feelings were ever and anon jarred on seeing the utter slovenliness of affairs about the farm-houses and villages, indicating at least an ignorance of the value of some of the best kinds of manures. As in Alsace, the cows were the chief beasts of draught, and women were everywhere engaged in the most degrading labour in the fields. The ladies of our party were full of lamentations on this subject, and their feelings were altogether overcome on seeing two aged female labourers come from an adjoining field, and soak at a pump a lump of brown bread, which they sat down and ate by the wayside.

The mean condition remarked in the exclusively agricultural or pastoral districts, disappears as we approach the large towns, where some kind of manufacturing industry introduces a degree of wealth and substantial comfort among all classes of the people. This is particularly observable in approaching Zurich. The beautiful slopes become sprinkled with detached cottages and houses, whitewashed and tastefully ornamented; and, with the numerous bushy enclosures and fruit-trees, the whole district seems a garden or orchard. At noon, we arrived at the environs of the town, and in a few minutes afterwards were established at a house of enormous size, the Hotel Bauer, opposite a suite of splendid new buildings, in which are contained the post and diligence offices. Zurich has a very different appearance from Basle. It is situated on nearly level ground, at the northern extremity of the lake of the same name, the chief issue of water from which being the Limmat, already spoken of, and which, a broad heavy stream, flows through the centre of the town. The Sihl, a lesser stream, from an adjacent hilly group, passes along the side of the town, at the entrance from Basle, and soon after joins the Limmat. Until a few years ago, the place was surrounded by walls, and being therefore prevented from expanding, the streets were densely clustered together, and built without any regard to regularity. At the period of our visit, an entire change had taken place in this respect. The walls had been demolished and swept away; some open pleasure-grounds and promenades had been established on their site; new streets of elegant buildings were opening up; and the environs, in all directions, particularly along the face of the neighbouring green hills, were in the course of being gradually studded over with the mansions of the higher class of citizens. Zurich is thus quite in a state of transition; old clumsy edifices are making way for handsome new erections, and the confined thoroughfares along the margin of the lake are widening and giving room for ranges of substantial broad quays, like those of a seaport town.

No small degree of good taste has been manifested in executing a number of these necessary reforms. The new streets are broad and well paved, open spaces have been reserved for public convenience, and an old rampart, at the entrance to the town, near our hotel, we found to be laid out as a flower-garden, from the summit of which is obtained a commanding view of the broad sheet of lake stretching ten or twelve miles southward, between beautifully wooded and cottage-clad hills, and bounded by the alpine heights of Glarus. Favoured by weather of superlative beauty, and surrounded by objects of the deepest interest, the time we spent here was employed to the best possible advantage. Some of my inquiries were of a nature which required me to pursue them alone; but the Jadies, though left behind, had ample means of amusement in examining the various articles of Swiss produce in the shops; and if disinclined to go out, they could ascend to the flat roof of the hotel, and there, as on a terrace, obtain the most splendid views of the lake and surrounding country. A knowledge that such a place as this was at the command of visiters,

was gained from a printed placard affixed to the back sistence of the inhabitants is derived from a union of our bed-room doors; and as this affiche was some- of agricultural with manufacturing pursuits. If the thing curious in its way, we took the liberty of copy-husband is at the loom, his wife is out of doors at the ing it. Here it is: “Zurich-capital of the canton, potato ridges, a girl is winding bobbins, and a boy is the oldest and most important manufacturing town attending the goat; baby leads the only sinecure life, of Switzerland, distinguished above all others for and is seen sprawling at his ease on a cushion laid on prosperous industry and natural situation, may by the ground at a short distance from the mother. The reason be called the most agreeable stay. Nowhere keeping of pigs is also an almost universal practice. It we find a more healthsome state of atmosphere than may be asked, what is the amount of wages realised here, and scarcely travellers will find in no place of weekly? From all I have been able to learn, the wages Switzerland more diversion. Without trouble, in- of a silk or ribbon weaver are seldom above 6s. per week, conveniency, or danger, they enjoy on every points the and frequently not more than 4s. 6d. Cheap as most most delightful view upon the lake and the chain of articles are, it would be impossible to make such a the Alps. But also the internal part of the town sum serve for a family, unless great frugality were offers many interesting things, and, finally, a quantity employed, and a part of the subsistence drawn from of industrial, medical, and instructive establishments. the garden, the field, the pig, and the goat. EstimatThe new builded hospital, the building for blinds, and ing this branch of the workman's revenue at 3s., the deafs, and dumbs, are very beautiful, and deserve to entire earnings cannot be made more than 98. weekly; be seen. Travellers having no time to see the already and for this, all the members of the family, baby exnamed points of view, will indemnify themselves for cepted, give their labour. I had heard so much of the the loss by visiting the Belvedere of the hotel, which comforts of the Swiss operative manufacturers, partilikes a walk (containing 300 feet in the length, and cularly the weavers, that I was most solicitous to 16 in the broad); nothing can be more delightful than ascertain in what respect their opportunities of wellthis view. On this Belvedere of the hotel travellers doing differed from those of our workmen in England. find every comfort for refreshment, dejeuners, tea After making all proper allowances, it appeared to in the evening; every thing is wound up by means me that the contrast between the mass of British of a mechanism." Not a bad specimen of English, it operatives and that of the Swiss, is very much the will be allowed, for a Swiss. If the reader ever goes same as we might institute between the British workto Zurich, we recommend him to fix his residence in ing man of the present day and the British working this new establishment, which excels in cleanliness, man of a century ago. The time has been with us airiness, and comfort. when the bulk of the people lived in a more simple fashion than they now do - enjoyed no luxuries, wrought hard, lived frugally, made every thing tell and lost nothing, eking out the ostensible gains of industry with the profits of a garden or a cow, and so forth. The small farmer in Scotland, seventy years ago, mended his plough-harness or his own shoes in the evenings, sitting by the winter fire, his wife spinning by his side. There was in this system a certain homely comfort; there was simplicity and content : the moral state of a community in such circumstances, if it included few brilliant virtues, was free from gross vices, and habits generative of poverty. How far it has been well exchanged for higher wages with higher desires and a life spent in less pure and simple circumstances, I will not take it upon me to say; but such a state, I conceive, is that of the Swiss workman of the present day. He realises small wages; but he employs his spare hours in making his own and his family's clothes, and his wife and children are all productive in some humble way, so that, being frugal and easily contented, the family never are ill off. The difference, then, depends very much on merely moral conditions. In Scotland alone, it is calculated that above L.4,000,000 per annum are spent on whisky-a source, not of comfort, but of moral degradation. The bulk of the community of the country are poorer by this sum year by year. Now, I question if L.100,000 are spent on exhilarating liquors annually amongst the equal population of Switzerland.

By the kindness of a friend in England, I was favoured with an introduction to Mr Escher, junior, partner with his father in one of the largest, if not the very largest, engineering establishments in Switzerland. This concern is situated at about half a mile from the centre of the town, on the right bank of the Limmat, the large body of water of that beautiful river-equal in volume, I should think, to the Tweed at Kelso-being the agent of moving force to the machinery. The establishment is not contained in one but a number of houses, of different sizes, suitable to the nature of the work, and is more like a little town than a single factory. At the period of my visit, it gave employment to 800 men, the greater part of whom were Germans and Swiss, with some English-the whole superintended by Mr Lloyd, an Englishman, with whom I had some conversation. Conducted over the whole of the works, I found every thing on a scale resembling that of the most effective engine factories of Manchester or Leeds. First, we were shown the enormous water-wheels by which all the interior mechanism is moved; and then, one after the other, were shown the foundry for iron and brassthe large hall in which planing machines are smoothing the surfaces of huge masses of iron or turning cylinders-the various floors on which are being made every kind of apparatus for spinning flax, silk, or cotton-a place in which the scattered parts are assembled and put together-and, lastly, the warehouse, in which a number of men are busy packing the ma chinery for distant parts of Switzerland and neighbouring countries. The Messrs Escher, I was informed, furnish machines for factories in Austria, the north of Italy, and northern Germany; and, as far as I am able to judge, the mechanism in preparation was as strong and tastefully finished as any thing of the kind turned out from our English factories. It required but a glance at such a concern to feel that the days of English supremacy in manufacturing industry were fast melting away. Machines, of every description, can here be made, of, in some cases, a superior structure to what can be executed in England; for, here, the maker is fettered by no patent privileges, and he can therefore combine improvements which no individual English manufacturer dare attempt to unite. This is only one of many manufacturing establishments in and about Zurich. The canton takes the lead in Swiss manufactures; its principal article is silk goods, the raw material being imported with little trouble from Italy, and here spun, dyed, and woven into various kinds of tissues. A few years ago, there were 853 manufactories in the canton, of which 128 were spinning-mills, 7 calenders, 3 card manufactories, 2 thread mills, and 8 engineering works. The weaving of silk is entirely in the hands of hand-loom weavers, of whom there are supposed to be 12,000 or 13,000 in constant employment, mostly within a few miles of Zurich. It is proper here to mention a distinct peculiarity of this class of operatives in Switzerland. They do not huddle up into mean dwellings in towns, but disperse themselves over a certain district of country, in separate cottages, each cottage being provided with a garden and small piece of ground, on which the industry of the man and his family is exerted. The diligence with which the families of Swiss workmen pursue their labours in and out of doors at these rural retreats, is spoken of by all travellers as a kind of wonder, and in the neighbourhood of Zurich it appears in its most captivating form. Passing along the western bank of the lake, and wandering up the slopes of the Albis, we perceive numerous clusters of cottages, inhabited principally by weavers, from which the sounds of the shuttle are heard to proceed. Here, as elsewhere, the cottages are chiefly of wood, but substantial, and are generally ornamented with vines climbing to the pendant eaves of the roof. All around are patches of garden, or small enclosed fields, sufficient, probably, to pasture a goat, with some ground under crops of potatoes. It is evident that the sub

The whole political condition of Switzerland is cast in the same simple mould as the condition of a single family. Its twenty-two cantons unite in a republican government, which is cheaply, and upon the whole smoothly, conducted, studying in all things the express and immediate benefit of the whole people. The taxes are light, and there is no exalted class to produce a constant straining after imaginary happiness amongst those below. The government follows the principles of free trade. It has no customhouse establishment, either in reference to the general frontiers or the frontiers of the respective states; the only impediment to the transport of goods of any description, in any direction, is the exaction of tolls, at the rate of about one penny per hundredweight, for the benefit of the cantonal revenues, from which, however, the roads are kept in repair. At all the great outlets from Switzerland, strong bodies of douaniers, or armed customhouse officers, are stationed by the authorities of other nations, for the purpose of rigorously examining and taxing all articles that come out of the Swiss territory; but within the Swiss side of these outlets there are no officials to pay the least attention to any thing that comes into the country; and, in point of fact, the French, Germans, and other neighbours, export to Switzerland whatever goods they please, including all kinds of foreign produce, without being charged any duty whatever. This very remarkable state of things is partly ascribable to the contending interests of the different cantons. Some cantons are agricultural, and others contain large seats of manufacture. But the agricul tural cantons would feel it very hard to be obliged to buy manufactured goods from a neighbouring canton at a dearer rate than they could buy them from somewhere abroad; the peasantry of Vaud have no idea of emptying their pockets to benefit the manufacturers of Basle or Zurich. Another cause, perhaps, is the vast expense which would be necessarily incurred by attempting to watch a widely extended boundary beset by active contrabandists. It is at the same time but fair to state, that in all the deliberations of the Swiss authorities for a number of years, there appears to have been a great unanimity of feeling on the propriety of abstaining from restrictions on commerce. A committee appointed by the diet in 1833, to consider the subject of foreign relations, made the following report, one of the most extraordinary ever uttered by the members of a legislative body :

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First-The Swiss confederation shall irrevocably adhere to its established system of free trade and ma

nufacture. Second-Under no circumstances and no conditions shall it form a part of the French customhouse system, of the Prussian commercial league, or the customhouse line of any foreign nation. ThirdIt shall use every effort for the establishment and extension of the principles of free trade. Fourth-It shall, as far as possible, discuss and establish conventions with the neighbouring states for the disposal of agricultural and vineyard produce and cattle, for obtaining the free ingress of corn, and for maintaining the daily, reciprocal, economical, neighbourly, and border traffic and market transactions. Fifth-Wherever a free trade is not obtainable, it shall endeavour to remove all prohibitions, to lower duties, and to secure the power of transit on the most favourable terms. Sixth-When exceptional favours can be obtained, they shall be used for the advancement of those measures which lead to the accomplishment of the ends proposed; so, however, that exchanges be not thereby limited, nor personal liberty interfered with. Seventh -In the interior of Switzerland, it shall make every exertion to assist industry, and to remove impediments to intercourse, taking care, however, that it do not interfere with the personal concerns of merchants or manufacturers."

All restrictions on the importation of articles from other countries being thus removed, it might be supposed by some that the country would be deluged with foreign manufactures, greatly to the injury of native capitalists and workmen. But this does not appear to be the case. In several branches of manufacture the Swiss excel, and the opportunity of buying certain kinds of foreign produce, at a particularly cheap rate, enables the people to encourage the growth of other manufactures in their own country. The peasant who buys an English-made knife at half what he could buy a Swiss one for, has a half of his money remaining wherewith to purchase a nativemade ribbon; hence, Swiss manufactures of one kind or other are sure to be encouraged. From all that I could either see or hear, my impression is, that the liberty to import foreign articles is of no sort of consequence to the native producers; the truth is, comparatively few foreign-made goods are seen, either in shops or on the persons of the people. The bulk of the Swiss, it would appear, clothe themselves in materials made by the hand in their own humble dwellings; and what they buy must be substantial and worth the money. English-printed calicoes are rarely seen, although they are much lower priced than those of Switzerland, because the people have no confidence in the durability of the colours. The Swiss goods of this class are not only beautiful, but strong and durable in colour-qualities now rarely found in the produce of English factories. There are articles called Swiss prints sold in England; but we were informed by a manufacturer at Zurich that he did not believe a single piece ever was sent to this country, the whole that were passed off as Swiss being mere counterfeits. I am unable to say with what degree of truth this allegation was made; but it is very certain that the growing trashiness of quality of most English tissues is excluding them from the only open market in Europe.

The manufacturing industry of Switzerland in some measure takes its tone from the distinctions of race in the population. The Germans engage in the manufacture of iron, linens, silk, cotton, pottery, and some kinds of toys; while the French, from their superior artistic tastes, employ themselves in making watches, jewellery, musical boxes, and other elegant objects. Iron of a superior quality is found in one of the cantons, and coal is also dug, but it is of stony quality, and wood forms the chief fuel. Salt is now made within the canton of Basle, and in the Valais. From the prevalence of rapid running streams, there is an abundance of water power in almost all quarters, and therefore little expense is incurred for forces to turn machinery.

When we consider that Switzerland has not a single sea-port, no foreign political connexion, no flag to protect its external interests, and can neither import nor export goods except by paying duties and tolls through one or other of the surrounding states, it seems surprising how such a country can carry on any foreign trade at all with advantage. The power possessed by their neighbours of laying tolls on the transit of goods to or from the Swiss frontiers, is certainly a serious drawback on the prosperity of the republic; and there cannot be a doubt that if France, Rhenish Germany, Austria, and Sardinia, were combining to ruin the trade of Switzerland, they could very easily do so. Hitherto, these surrounding countries have acted on the reasonable principle of competing against each other, in order to secure a share of the transit, and until the German league is drawn round this independent little country, there need be no fear of its being shut out from the field of general commerce. As the case is, it says much for the energy of the Swiss that they can bear up against a long land-carriage to and from sea-ports. No man can see unmoved the large waggons, drawn by six or eight horses, and loaded with bales of cotton, slowly toiling up the country from Mayence, to which the cotton has been brought by barges on the Rhine from Rotterdam, with the design of being carried to some remote manufactory in Zurich. There is a persevering enterprise in this that exceeds all ordinary conceptions of industry. But other difficulties have to be encountered. The expense of transport, when

the raw material has reached the borders of the moun- | singular and ludicrous character: the hands of some tain country, is greatly increased. The roads are ge- were uplifted as if praying; others held them forward nerally excellent, but some of the seats of manufacture as if blind, and seeking some one; and the remarkare placed at the height of from two to three thou-able ease with which every limb was raised and fixed sand feet above the level of the sea; and in certain in its position, was very striking." districts the snow closes all communication for traffic Desirous to test how far the will of one of the abfrom November till March. Great as are these com-jects (a girl) could be exercised in obedience to Lis plicated drawbacks, the Swiss manufacturers defy requests, Mr Braid desired her to rise. She did so, them, by dint, it appears to me, chiefly of two circum- although apparently asleep and her eyes closed. He stances-first, cheapness of labour, which enables then, by gentle entreaties, induced her to walk along them to undersell the English every where in good the platform, which she did, with those peculiar chaarticles, and to withstand competition from every racteristics of caution and care which are described other quarter; second, abundance of capital, stable as displayed by somnambulists. This was altogether social institutions, the absence of a class of mere a very striking experiment-one which Mr Braid said speculators, and the presence of a sufficient number he had never tried before that moment; he had, inof skilful labourers. How far the freedom of trade deed, never seen this patient till two days ago. He directly operates, I cannot say; it must at least be a then asked her to curtsy, which she did, and in a negative advantage. Yet the manufacturing pro- low voice answered several questions which he put sperity of Switzerland, I am assured, depends imme- to her. On being afterwards restored to her usual diately on the above circumstances, most of which, it state, this girl said that she recollected walking and will be observed, are connected with peculiarities in being asked questions, and felt as in a dream. She the national character-their frugality, prudence, was afterwards mesmerised in the manner of M. Laskill, and general habits of life. The case may be said fontaine, and in this state, though her eyes were closed, to be exactly that of one of those poor but frugal and on being asked if she saw what Mr Braid had in his industrious families amongst ourselves, who make a hand (it was a glass rod), answered "Yes" and to livelihood by keeping cows and selling the milk; and the query "What is it?" "answered "Glass." Another who, in consequence of all the family working at some female, Mr Braid's cook, who was put into the catapart of the business, and being content with small leptiform state by gazing, on being pricked by a pin, gains and simple living, can (as has been proved by manifested no sense of pain. Mr Braid ventured on experience) successfully compete with milk companies, this occasion to assert, with increased confidence, his highly organised and conducted by enlightened but opinion, that the effects of his experiments were idenalso highly paid functionaries. tical with those of ordinary mesmerism; and the scepI have learned, with some regret, that the seeds of ticism on this point, of those who tested his experichange are considered to be already sown in the traf-ments, appeared to be considerably diminished. The ficking system of Switzerland. There is a party who girl who had been in both conditions, declared that conceive that the time must come when it will be im- she knew no difference in the sensations she expepossible to maintain the Swiss manufactures in their rienced under them respectively. It seemed the genepresent advantageous condition-foreseeing, probably, ral opinion, that the two classes of experiments, if not that workmen will become less easily contented, and in all respects identical, were at least closely analogous. that the simplicity and good faith of the whole sys- Mr Braid took occasion to warn his audience against tem must give way; and this party are favourable to carrying these experiments too far; as, amongst inexa union with the German league. perienced persons, considerable danger might ensue. At the same time, it was worthy of remark, that a remedial effect had resulted from them in the case of an invalid young lady under his care-an effect which he had not expected, but which had determined him to prosecute the inquiry with a view to the benefit of mankind.

RECENT EXPERIMENTS AT MANCHESTER. THERE have been some curious exhibitions at the Manchester Athenæum, to show that the phenomena of what is commonly called Animal Magnetism, or Mesmerism, can be produced by means quite independent of any external influence. Mr Braid, a surgeon, is the person who has brought forward this proposition, and endeavoured to prove it. His first exhibition, which took place on the 27th of November, was numerously attended. It appears that M. Lafontaine, the Belgian mesmerist, had been exhibiting at Manchester a week before, and had set Mr Braid's brain a-working on the subject. His knowledge of the organisation of the eye suggested to him a physiological cause for the phenomena; and he lost no time in proceeding to experiment, with a view to proving if such was the case. He considered his success so great, that he resolved to come before the public with his views.

At the meeting, five persons voluntarily submitted to this new kind of mesmerism. A small but distinct and conspicuous object being placed above the level of the eye, Mr Braid directed his subjects to regard it with a steady gaze: the stopper of a bottle was the first object which he employed; afterwards he bound a long cork upon their foreheads, in the manner of a horn, desiring them to fix their gaze upon its outer extremity. Generally, their eyes closed in about a minute, some in less, Mr Braid standing all the time at a considerable distance. In this condition, though retaining, apparently, their ordinary consciousness, they had no power to open their eyes; but Mr Braid enabled them to do so by merely a slight rubbing of the eyelids. In one instance, the patient remained unaffected, in consequence, Mr Braid alleged, of his being disturbed by noise, and not keeping his gaze steadily fixed. The phenomena do not appear on this evening to have been carried any farther. A discussion took place amongst the medical men present, some of whom were mesmerists; and it was the general opinion that some of the mesmeric conditions had been produced by Mr Braid's plan, but that some of the more wonderful were wanting. Mr Braid persisted in declaring that he considered the two classes of phenomena as identical.

At a third exhibition, a few days after the second, a still greater number of persons were thrown into the cataleptiform state by following Mr Braid's directions. One of these, a Mr Cope, who had been mesmerised by M. Lafontaine, and had hitherto been incredulous as to Mr Braid's system, declared afterwards that in the two conditions he was conscious of no difference. No attempt was made to ascertain if Mr Braid's subjects possessed any portion of that power of seeing without the ordinary use of the sense which some of the mesmeric subjects have professed to have. But, certainly, in many of the phenomena, as they were felt by the subjects and witnessed by the spectators, a strong resemblance existed to those of mesmerism. It may still, of course, remain doubtful how far subjects affected in the Braid fashion are not in reality under the influence of that same magnetism which the mesmerists suppose to be the agent in their class of phenomena as also how far the groups of people operated on in the Manchester Athenæum are not under some of those sympathetic passions which have produced such strange effects in other cases. It is proper, however, to state Mr Braid's own notion as to the physiological causes of both his own and Mesmer's phenomena. It is, briefly, that by an individual keeping up a steady gaze or fixed stare at an object placed in such a position as to put the greatest number of muscles connected with that organ and its appendages into action, the mind being at the same time necessarily abstracted, congestion takes place in the eye, and a rapid exhaustion of the natural sensibility of the retina and motive nerves of the eye and eyelids. This is reflected on the brain, and from that to the heart and lungs, producing enervation and consequent sinking in the force and frequency of the heart's action. These conditions lead to congestion of the brain, the proximate cause of the cataleptiform condition.

In connexion with the Manchester experiments, we may here introduce some extracts from a letter addressed to us, in consequence of a late paper on mesA week after, he repeated his demonstrations in merism, by a gentleman of our acquaintance, in whose the same place, and on this occasion the wonders pre-credit-worthiness as a witness of facts we have all sented were of a somewhat more striking kind. He possible reason to place reliance :-" When in Lonhad, in the mean time, allowed some of the subjects don last May, I was invited by a gentleman long of his experiments to remain a little longer in the known to me, Mr Townsend, to witness some mesunusual condition into which they had been brought. meric experiments at his own house. The subject The consequence was a congestion of the brain, at- was a young man, a Belgian, about nineteen years tended by an astonishing increase of sensibility, inso- of age, named Egide Earts. Mr T. succeeded, in much that they obeyed every slightly indicated wish about ten minutes, in inducing the middle or somof the operator, and could distinctly hear the faintest nambulous state, by merely holding the youth's whisper. He had produced this cataleptiform state hands and looking steadily in his face. A deep and in forty cases, without a single failure. He now be thick bandage was then placed over the youth's eyes, lieved that persons might in such a condition see with and the persons present were invited to offer him their eyes shut, the excessive sensibility enabling the words, either printed or written, to read. I gave him organ to act by means of the small quantity of light my own address card and that of a friend who was passing through the lids. On this occasion, he placed present; and placing them close to his forehead, with five persons on the platform, who, by looking at corks the printed side towards him, he pronounced the planted horn-wise on their foreheads, became affected words of both with his foreign accent. I turned up in spaces of time varying from a quarter of a minute in a French book a chapter bearing the odd titles of to three minutes. "All the five subjects," says the HUMILITE-MANSUETUDE-PARDON. He did not sucreport, "were then placed in postures of the most ceed in naming the two first words, although he said

there were three, and he said the third word was 'Pardom' The number of the chapter, which was the 30th, expressed in Roman numerals, he said was "three X's." From his being evidently illiterate, I should think that he did not understand the import of these three letters. A lady was allowed to take off his bandage, and hold down his eyelids with her middle fingers; when he read whatever was presented him with equal ease, his hesitations being chiefly in those cases where the writing was not plain, or where the words were beyond the range of an illiterate mind. I requested and obtained leave to hold his eyes myself, that I might be perfectly satisfied that he could not possibly use them. For the complete sealing of his ordinary inlets of vision, I can pledge myself. Yet every thing that was presented to him he read with the same ease as before!"

Our correspondent goes on to say-" I happen to be acquainted with an English lady, who, after exhausting medical advice for a severe ailment of three years' duration, was cured, as she conceives, by a prescription from a person in the somnambulous state. She had lost health to such an extent, that she required to be wheeled about from place to place. Given up in England, she tried the Continent, but there experienced no benefit. After suffering many things of many physicians,' she was brought to Paris on her way home, still unable to walk. She was here advised to consult a medical man in whose house dwelt a mesmeric subject, a female, who, in the somnambulous state, professed to see internal organisation, and to prescribe appropriately for the diseased. The lady at first refused to make a fool of herself,' by having recourse to such an oracle; but at length was persuaded to go, though still half-ashamed and wholly incredulous. The doctor brought the somnambule into the room, and, having put her into the mesmeric sleep, desired her to describe the lady's state. She did so promptly and decidedly, distinguishing what was unSound from what was sound, and following up the recital by prescribing medicines and a regimen, which, she said, would take some time to show good results, but would ensure a perfect restoration to health.

The lady returned to England, followed punctually the prescription, began to mend, and, within the specified time, was restored to health and strength. This recital I have from one of her most intimate friends, and I have myself seen her in the restored state. Of course, it may be that she would have recovered independently of these circumstances; or it may be that the doctor only took a rather odd way of communicating a prescription which he thought suitable to the case. Still, I would say, there is sufficient unlikelihood in these surmises, to make it desirable that the professed powers of the somnambule should be carefully investigated.

The lady who gave me the above particulars is a believer in mesmerism-that is to say, she has seen a variety of phenomena, which she cannot account for otherwise than by supposing some peculiar action of the nervous system beyond what has hitherto been observed or imagined. In a letter with which she has favoured me, she makes some remarks, which, as they may be beneficial to the mesmerists, I subjoin. 'It has appeared to me,' she says, 'that the great and constantly recurring error of these gentlemen is, that they do not address themselves, as they ought to do, to the benevolent feelings of mankind, but, as they should not do, to their wonder. This, I am well assured, is the rock on which they split. Instead of keeping religiously in view that the object of all their operations should be directly and indirectly the relief of their fellow-men from physical suffering, they ry to take the mind, senses, and consent of the spectators by storm, by the exhibition of, it is true, new and startling phenomena, but which are generally quite useless to those from whom they are elicited. Such exhibitions injure the cause it is intended they should advance, and moreover deprive us of means which, conscientiously used for the purpose of cure only, might spare the invalid much and acute suffering?'

MR CATLIN ON AMERICA.
SECOND NOTICE.

THE work of Mr Catlin upon the American Indians,
noticed already in the present work, gives us valuable
sketches, from pen and pencil, not only of the human
inhabitants, but also of the numerous classes of the
lower animals, to be found in the inland wilds of North
America. In the previous article, the wild horse of
the Indians was alluded to. Mr Catlin, moreover,
paints and describes the buffalo of the prairies, and
gives several interesting accounts of buffalo hunts,
which form the almost daily occupation of the abori-
gines on the Missouri and elsewhere. The buffalo is
gregarious, ranging the prairies in numerous herds.
It is of a dark brown colour, larger for the most part
than the common domestic ox, and, in the cases of
males, sometimes reaching the enormous weight of two
thousand pounds. The shoulders of the male are of
great breadth and depth, and a long shaggy mane
hangs in profusion from the neck, often touching the
ground. The horns are short but strong, and having
but one slight curve, are most formidable butting
weapons. In the female buffalo, the mane is shorter,
and the shoulders less massive. Buffalo herds are
found in America between the 30th and 55th degrees
of north latitude, and from the verge of the western

frontier of the States to the Pacific edge of the Rocky throw light on the secret of taming horses by whis-
Mountains. These herds follow a leader, some bullpering, as the Irish call the process. Speaking of
which has earned the place of honour by victory in very young calf-buffaloes, Mr Catlin tells, that, when
the numerous battles among the males. At particular they are found apart from their dams, they push their
seasons, these conflicts present a terrible sight, several noses into a bush a few inches high, and have the firm
thousands being occasionally seen engaged in one persuasion, poor things, that nobody can see them.
melée, in the midst of the clouds of dust which they When approached, they kick, but soon yield; and
have raised. Their conjoined bellowings add to the then "I have often (says our author), in concurrence
impressive nature of the scene.
with a known custom of the country, held my hands
over the eyes of the calf, and breathed a few strong
breaths into its nostrils; after which I have, with my
hunting companions, rode several miles into our en-
campment, with the little prisoner busily following
the heels of my horse the whole way, as closely and as
affectionately as its instinct would attach it to the
company of its dam. This is one of the most extra-
ordinary things that I have met with in the habits of
this wild country; and although I had often heard of
it, and felt unable exactly to believe it, I am now
willing to bear testimony to the fact, from the nume-
rous instances which I have witnessed since I came
into the country. During the time that I resided at
this post, in the spring of the year, on my way up the
river, I assisted (in numerous hunts of the buffalo,
with the Fur Company's men) in bringing in, in the
above manner, several of these little prisoners, which
sometimes followed for five or six miles close to our
horses' heels, and even into the Fur Company's fort,
and into the stable where our horses were led. In
this way, before I left for the head waters of the Mis-
souri, I think we had collected about a dozen, which
Mr Laidlaw was successfully raising with the aid of a
good milch cow, and which were to be committed to
the care of Mr Chouteau, to be transported, by the
return of the steamer, to his extensive plantation in
the vicinity of St Louis." This is really a very curious
fact; and, as all the world is at present experimenting
in order to unmystify mysteries, we strongly recom-
mend that some one, conveniently circumstanced,
should try the preceding process upon our domestic
animals. Besides the unveiling of the secret of the
whisperers, any one who has seen a calf-driver perspir-
ing under the task of propelling his charge by alter-
nate pushing, pulling, and kicking, will allow that a
positive general good would be the result of success.
Seriously, the acute sense of smell possessed by most
animals, may lead to such effects being produced.
Having once inhaled the breath of any one, the crea-
ture may track it upon the air, and follow what it
remembers and knows.

Three hundred thousand Indians, Mr Catlin calcu-
lates, not only subsist wholly on the buffalo, but
derive from it all the other necessaries, and even many
of the luxuries, of life. "The robes of the animals are
worn by the Indians instead of blankets; their skins,
when tanned, are used as coverings for their lodges
and for their beds; undressed, they are used for con-
structing canoes- -for saddles, for bridles, l'arrêts,
lassos, and thongs. The horns are shaped into ladles
and spoons-the brains are used for dressing the skins
their bones are used for saddle-trees, for war-clubs,
and scrapers for graining the robes-and others are
broken up for the marrow-fat which is contained in
them. Their sinews are used for strings and backs to
their bows, for thread to string their beads and sew
their dresses. The feet of the animals are boiled,
with their hoofs, for the glue they contain, for fasten-
ing their arrow-points, and many other uses. The
hair from the head and shoulders, which is long, is
twisted and braided into halters, and the tail is used
for a fly-brush. In this manner do these people convert
and use the various parts of this useful animal; and
with all these luxuries of life about them, and their
numerous games, they are happy-God bless them!-
in the ignorance of the disastrous fate that awaits
them."
Even on foot, the Indians can, to a certain extent,
make prize of the buffalo; and one mode of doing so
is by covering their bodies with the skins of wolves,
and creeping near the stragglers of the herds, armed
with their bows. Though the animal may be torn down
by a pack of wolves, it is not afraid of one or two of
them, and Mr Catlin saw cases in which an old bull,
whose retreat had been cut off, had singly resisted for
several days the desperate attacks of a whole pack.
The Indians, however, hunt the buffalo, most com-
monly, on horseback. The following is a sketch of a
hunt among the Minatarees, who were mounted, and
armed partly with bows and partly with lances. The
buffaloes soon snuffed their foes, who had formed a
circle round them, and they fled. "To the point
where they were aiming to cross the line, the horse-
men were seen at full speed gathering and forming in
a column, brandishing their weapons and yelling in
the most frightful manner, by which means they
turned the black and rushing mass, which moved off
in an opposite direction, where they were again met
and foiled in a similar manner, and wheeled back in
utter confusion; by which time the horsemen had
closed in from all directions, forming a continuous
line around them, whilst the poor affrighted animals
were eddying about in a crowded and confused mass,
hooking and climbing upon each other, when the work
of death commenced.

The Honourable Mr Murray, and other recent travellers in America, have somewhat hastily denied to the Indians the credit of exhibiting unconquerable fortitude under suffering and torture. Mr Catlin's more extended experience made him even painfully aware that their long-standing reputation in this respect was merited to its utmost extent. In a village of the Mandans, he witnessed the ceremonies of torture which this tribe inflict upon themselves under the impression that, the greater endurance they thus show, the more they gain the favour of the Great Spirit. He saw numbers submit, without a shudder, to have large jagged knives passed below the strongest In this grand turmoil, a cloud of dust was soon muscles of the chest and limbs, to have skewers inraised, which in part obscured the throng where the serted, and to be hung up for hours by ropes tied hunters were galloping their horses around, and driv-round these. Some ran races with similar skewers in ing the whizzing arrows, or the long lances, to the their bodies, and large weights attached to them, hearts of these noble animals; which, in many in- which could not be removed without pulling them stances, becoming infuriated with deadly wounds in forcibly through, or allowing them to suppurate out. their sides, erected their shaggy manes over their Some of the Indians first bore the hanging trial, and blood-shot eyes, and furiously plunged forwards at the then ran the race; in addition to all which suffering, sides of their assailants' horses, sometimes goring them they crawled to a block, where the little finger of the to death at a lounge, and putting their dismounted left hand was struck off as a sacrifice to the Great crowd was opened, and the blinded horsemen, too looking on to judge of comparative merit in endurance, riders to flight for their lives; sometimes their dense Spirit. Meanwhile, the dignitaries of the tribe are intent on their prey amidst the cloud of dust, were and by this trial the sufferer rises or falls as "a brave." hemmed and wedged in amidst the crowding beasts, Mr Catlin noticed that every great Mandan chief over whose backs they were obliged to leap for secu- bore marks of having endured, even several times, rity, leaving their horses to the fate that might await these horrible ordeals, and some had even sacrificed them in the results of this wild and desperate war. the little fingers of both hands. Mr Catlin verifies Many were the bulls that turned upon their assailants, his descriptions by the certificates of three other traand met them with desperate resistance; and many vellers present at the time. So that if the stoical were the warriors who were dismounted, and saved endurance of pain be a virtue, these poor Indians themselves by the superior muscles of their legs; some, assuredly possess it. who were closely pursued by the bulls, wheeled suddenly around, and snatching the part of a buffalo robe from around their waists, threw it over the horns and the eyes of the infuriated beast, and darting by its side, drove the arrow or the lance to its heart. Others suddenly dashed off upon the prairies by the side of the affrighted animals which had escaped from the throng, and closely escorting them for a few rods, brought down their hearts' blood in streams, and their huge carcasses upon the green and enamelled turf.

In this way this grand hunt soon resolved itself into a desperate battle; and, in the space of fifteen minutes, resulted in the total destruction of the whole herd, which in all their strength and fury were doomed, like every beast and living thing else, to fall before the destroying hands of mighty man. I had sat in trembling silence upon my horse, and witnessed this extraordinary scene, which allowed not one of these animals to escape out of my sight. Many plunged off upon the prairie for a distance, but were overtaken and killed; and although I could not distinctly estimate the number that were slain, yet I am sure that some hundreds of these noble animals fell in this grand melée."

One other observation of Mr Catlin respecting buffaloes is well worthy of notice, as it may possibly

With a word on the curious burial ceremonies of the Mandan tribe, we must leave this fascinating work. "These people never bury the dead, but place the bodies on slight scaffolds, just above the reach of human hands, and out of the way of wolves and dogs; and they are there left to moulder and decay. Whenever a person dies in the Mandan village, and the customary honours and condolence are paid to his remains, and the body dressed in its best attire, painted, oiled, feasted, and supplied with bow and quiver, shield, pipe, and tobacco, knife, flint, and steel, and provisions enough to last him a few days on the journey which he is to perform, a fresh buffalo's skin, just taken from the animal's back, is wrapped round the body, and tightly bound and wound with thongs of raw hide from head to foot. Then other robes are soaked in water, till they are quite soft and elastic, which are also bandaged round the body in the same manner, and tied fast with thongs, which are wound with great care and exactness, so as to exclude the action of the air from all parts of the body.

constructed of four upright posts, a little higher than There is then a separate scaffold erected for it, human hands can reach; and on the tops of these are small poles passing round from one post to the others; across which lie a number of willow-rods just strong

enough to support the body, which is laid upon them on its back, with its feet carefully presented towards the rising sun. When the scaffolds, on which the bodies rest, decay and fall to the ground, the nearest relations having buried the rest of the bones, take the skulls, which are perfectly bleached and purified, and place them in circles of a hundred or more on the prairie, placed at equal distances apart (some eight or nine inches from each other), with the faces all looking to the centre; where they are religiously protected and preserved in their precise positions from year to year, as objects of religious and affectionate veneration.

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There are several of these 'Golgothas,' or circles of twenty or thirty feet in diameter, and in the centre of each ring or circle is a little mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rests two buffalo skulls (a male and female); and in the centre of the little mound is erected a medicine pole,' about twenty feet high, supporting many curious articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose have the power of guarding and protecting this sacred arrangement. Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort, to evince their further affections for the dead-not in groans and lamentations, however, for several years have cured the anguish, but fond affections and endearments are here renewed, and conversations are here held and cherished with the dead.

Every one of these skulls is set upon a bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and placed under it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the skull of her husband or her child, which lies in this group; and there seldom passes a day that she does not visit it, with a dish of the best cooked food that her wigwam affords, which she sets before the skull at night, and returns for the dish in the morning. As soon as it is discovered that the sage on which the skull rests is beginning to decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch, and places the skull carefully upon it, removing that which was under it.

Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a pleasant day, but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the most pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as they were wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back. It is not unfrequently the case that the woman brings her needle-work with her, spending the greater part of the day sitting by the side of the skull of her child, chatting incessantly with it, while she is embroidering or garnishing a pair of moccasins; and, perhaps, overcome with fatigue, falls asleep, with her arms encircled round it, forgetting herself for hours, after which she gathers up her things and returns to the village.

There is something exceedingly interesting and impressive in these scenes, which are so strikingly dissimilar, and yet within a few rods of each other; the one is the place where they pour forth the frantic anguish of their souls, and afterwards pay their visits to the other, to jest and gossip with the dead."

HOMELY SCOTTISH PICTURES. The "Gaberlunzie's Wallet" is a title requiring some explanation to an English understanding: it is, literally, the Beggar's Budget. We find it applied to a publication recently commenced, in the form of "Charles O'Malley," but at half the price per number, and of which we have seen the first two detachments. It consists of a narrative, the main purpose of which seems to be to give arrangement to a series of poems and brief prose sketches. The whole style of these is homely, but clever and decidedly original; nor is a strain of kindly pathos wanting-arguing, altogether, an author who is of nobody's school or set, but a man who has both the will and power to be his own standard. To fortify our recommendation of the work to public notice, we extract what we consider as two pictures of Scottish scenery and feeling, remarkable for truthfulness of representation, while breathing abundantly of the poetical element.

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"Carnwath Muir, or the Lang Whang,' as that portion of it is called to which we have occasion more particularly to allude, is situated in the Upper Ward of Lanarkshire; and although our Scottish farmers, by dint of hard labour and persevering industry, have succeeded in driving cultivation to the very hill-tops in many parts of our naturally sterile country, and are daily making inroads in every direction on this ancient soil, and a few green crofts, with patches of corn, are to be seen rising here and there, still they form but a small proportion of this extensive morass, the greater part of which has lain undisturbed since the Flood, and, to the eye of a traveller, presents a very dreary and desolate appearance. Immense tracts of brown moorland stretch around you in every direction, adorned, it is true, with bright and beautiful heather, but affording scanty subsistence to the straggling sheep thinly scattered over its surface. Nothing in the shape of a human habitation is to be met with for miles; and, with the exception of the hollow sound of the little rill, stealing along through the soft velvet course in the bosom of the black moss under which it

* Menzies: Edinburgh. London: Tilt and Bogue.

is hurried, the solitary cry of a plover on the distant aforesaid. Let me give a few anecdotes of this beautiful
hills, or the husky whirr of a blackcock as he brushes and friendly animal. Of a two-horse team belonging to
past you on the wing, there is nothing living or mov-
the Earl of near Oxford, one was very vicious, the
ing with which you can claim acquaintance or feel other quite the reverse. In the stall next to the gentle
sympathy. Nevertheless, this district is not destitute horse, stood one that was blind. In the morning, when
the horses, about twenty of them, were turned out to
of interest to an enthusiastic Scotsman. There are
here and there to be seen clumps of trees and ruined pasture, this good-tempered creature constantly took his
blind friend under his protection.
gables, favouring the idea that at one period some of from his companions, his kind friend would run neighing
When he strayed
our feudal families may here have had their abode after, and smell around him, and when recognised, they
a supposition strengthened by the fact, that many of would walk side by side, until the blind friend was led
the small farm-houses lying amidst the brown moors to the best grass in the field. This horse was so exceed-
are dignified with high-sounding and characteristic ingly gentle, that he had incurred the character of being
Scotch names. As might be expected in such a se- a coward, when only himself was concerned; but if any
cluded region, the people are primitive in their habits of them made an attack upon his blind friend, he would
and simple in their manners; the men are robust, fly to the rescue with such fury, that not a horse in the
bony, and muscular; the women blooming, tall, and field could stand against him. This singular instance of
graceful. The small-farm system is here in full ope- sagacity (I had almost said of disinterested humanity)
ration; the farmers and their servants, working and may well put the whole fraternity of horse-jockeys to the
eating together, are upon the most familiar and inti- whether he is right or wrong; yet they expect him to
blush. They, to be sure, will fight for a brother jockey,
mate footing; and it is a very common occurrence for fight for them on the first similar occasion; but this kind-
the herd to marry his employer's daughter. What-hearted animal could anticipate no such reciprocity.
ever effects this free and friendly intercourse between
the employer and employed might have in more arti-
ficial states of society, certain it is that, in this natu-
ral and unsophisticated mode of life, it is productive
of the most beneficial results; labour is lightened by
such cheering encouragement, and the servant is
anxiously alive at all times to the interest of an em-
ployer who treats him as if he were his fellow, and
whose family regard him as if he were one of them-
selves. This principle of mutual assistance being
usually acted on, operates very beneficially among all
the members of this widely scattered community:
They have little intercourse with the world, and, shut
up among themselves, they get through the most toil-
some operations with comparative ease, assisting each
other in ploughing, reaping, sowing, and draining,
with the greatest readiness; and, in the words of one
of their own songs, exclaiming,

"What though we're few upon the muir,
We lo'e each other mair;
And to the weary wandering puir,
We've comfort aye to spare.'

"THE SNAWY KIRKYARD.

A' nature lay dead, save the cauld whistlin blast,
That chill'd the bleak earth to the core, as it pass'd,
And heaved in high ridges the thick chokin drift,
That cam in wreathed swirls frae the white marl'd lift;
And winter's wild war wearied baith heart and ee,
As we warsled richt sair ower the drear muirland lea;
And our feet skyted back on the road freezing hard,
As we wended our way to the Snawy Kirkyard.

Oh! a' thing seem'd dead-even the skeleton trees
Were shivering like death, in the grasp of the breeze;
And the hills that in sunshine tower'd proudly on high,
Seem'd shrinking in fear frae the wrath-cover'd sky;
Nor birdie nor beast could the watery ee scan,
A' were cowerin in corners, save grief-laden man:
Though the heart may be broken, the best maun be spared,
To make up a wreath in the Snawy Kirkyard.

The wee Muirland Kirk, whaur the pure Word o' God,
Maks warm the cauld heart and maks light the lang road,
Whaur alang the brown footpaths, when summer blooms green,
The plaids, gowns, and bonnets, like wild flowers were seen;
The sly hill-side yill-house, whaur lasses nieet lads,
Whaur herds leave their collies, and lairds tie their yauds-
Kirk-bell and house-riggin the white drift has squared,
But there's ae yawnin grave in the Snawy Kirkyard.
When the coffin is shut, though the mourner may moan,
The dead winna keep, and we're calm when they're gone;
For the colourless cheek and the lustreless ce
Are a' fitting trophies of death's victory;
We shrink from the sound of the first dirling clod,
We long till the grave's cover'd up wi' the sod;

But skulls grinning ghastly, amang the green sward,
Grin ghastlier still in a Snawy Kirkyard.

Through a' the hale parish, nae elder was known,
That was likit by a' like my grandfather John;
Oh, drear was that day when we bore him awa',
Wi' his gowd stores of thought, and his haffits o' snaw;
And the strong and the feeble, the timid and brave,
Cam through the black storm, to lay him in his grave:
I was then a wee callant, rose-cheek'd and gowd-hair'd,
When I laid his auld pow in the Snawy Kirkyard.

Oh, weel do I mind, though its lang, lang sinsyne,
And the world since has cool'd this then warm heart o' mine;
Yet whiles, when I think on these times lang gane by,
Saft thoughts soothe my soul and sweet tears dim my eye.
I see the auld man, when he clapp'd my wee head,
While a sigh heaved his breast, for my faither lang dead;
He nursed me, he school'd me, how can I regard
But wi' warm gushing heart- tears, a Snawy Kirkyard?

Now age wi' his hoar-frost has crispit my pow,
And my locks, ance sae gowden, are silvery now;
And though I can boast neither station nor power,
I hae health for my portion, and truth for my dower;
For my hand hath been open, my heart hath been free,
To dry the moist tear-drops frae sorrow's dull ee;
And mony puir bodies my wallet hae shared-
'Twas my counsel frae him in the Snawy Kirkyard.
In his breast there was love, in his soul there was grace,
That could aye in frail nature some sma' virtue trace;
In soothing sad sorrow, in calming mad mirth,
His breath, like the south wind, strew'd balm on the earth;
And weary souls, laden wi' grief, aft were driven
To seek comfort frae him, wha aye led them to Heaven;
Oh! sweet were the seeds sown, and rich was the braird
That sprung frae that stock in the Snawy Kirkyard."

ANECDOTES OF THE HORSE.
"The horse knoweth his owner," and he knows much
more. I verily believe he knows more than many of the
two-legged animals who ride on horseback; and I am
quite sure there is more of the spirit of Christianity in
his practice than is to be found in many of the bipeds

Some years ago, the servant of Mr Thomas Walker, of Manchester, England, going to water the carriage-horses at a stone trough which stood at one end of the Exchange, a dog, that was accustomed to lie in the stall with one of them, followed the horses as usual. On the way he was attacked by a large mastiff, and was in danger of being killed. The dog's favourite horse, seeing the critical situation of his friend, suddenly broke loose from the servant, ran to the spot where the dogs were fighting, and, with a violent kick, threw the mastiff from the other dog into a cooper's cellar opposite; and, having thus him to drink at the fountain.-American newspaper. rescued his friendly companion, returned quietly with

DUELLING IN THE REIGN OF GEORGE III.

Such was the frequent occurrence of duels in this long reign, that one hundred and seventy-two were fought (in which three hundred and forty-four persons were concerned); sixty-nine individuals were killed; in three of these fatal cases neither of the combatants survived; ninety-six of them were wounded-forty-eight of them desperately, and forty-eight slightly; while one hundred and seventy-nine escaped unhurt. From this statement it will be seen that rather more than one-fifth of the combatants lost their lives, and that nearly one-half received the bullets of their antagonists. It also appears that only eighteen trials took place; that six of the arraigned individuals were acquitted, seven found guilty of manslaughter, and three of murder, two of whom were executed, and eight imprisoned during different periods.

When the British army occupied the south of France, similar scenes were witnessed, but more especially at Bourdeaux, where the French officers came over for the sole purpose of insulting and fighting the English, who were in many instances absurd enough to meet their wishes. It is, however, gratifying to state, that the fortune of arms was generally in our favour. In one instance the French officers went to the little Theatre de la Galete, when a furious fray took place between them and several British officers; although the latter had no swords, the French drew theirs; but the British, breaking up chairs and tables, in a few minutes shivered their weapons, and knocked them down in every direction.

It is somewhat strange, but I was, in a great measure, the means of terminating these differences. Coming out of the theatre, I was assailed by a group of French officers; I calmly replied, that if I had given offence to any of them, I was ready to afford them satisfaction, and dilated on the absurdity of making a national war the subject of personal hostility, while I enlarged on the friendly feeling that had prevailed between our armies during the Peninsular war, and recalled to their recollection the many kind acts we had shown each other when prisoners and wounded. The officers not only listened to me with the greatest attention, but I was obliged to accompany them and sup with the party. The next morning there was not a French officer in the town. -Dr Millengen's History of Duelling.

THE CHINESE TAILOR.

Among the many whimsical anecdotes told of the peculiar habits of the Chinese, perhaps few will be considered more characteristic of their love of imitation than the following:-Towards the close of the last century, an officer of the Pitt, East Indiaman, when that ship lay off Canton, sent ashore to a native an order for a dozen pairs of trousers, to be made of the nankeen for which China has been so long famed. The Chinese artisan required a pattern-he could not make any thing without a pattern-so a pair of trousers were sent at his request, which pair had been mended with a patch and needlework on the knee. In due time the dozen pairs were sent on board, of a fabric of exceeding beauty for fineness and quality, but every pair bearing, like an heraldic badge, the obnoxious patch on the one knee, exactly copied stitch for stitch, in a style that reflected the highest credit on the mechanical skill of the workman, and for the difficult execution of which an extra charge was made upon the purse of the exasperated owner, who had no alternative but to bring home his bargain as a qualification for the Travellers' Club; for certainly among no kindred or people, living between this and China, could a similar achievement have been performed.-From a newspaper.

LONDON: Published, with permission of the proprietors, by W. S. ORR, Paternoster Row.

Printed by Bradbury and Evans, Whitefriars. Complete sets of the Journal are always to be had from the publishers or their agents; also, any odd numbers to complete sets. Persons requiring their volumes bound along with titlepages and contents, have only to give them into the hands of any bookseller, with orders to that effect.

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