In order that the foregoing classification may be clearly understood, it is necessary to note the proper meaning of the term vowel and consonant, and to define the relationship which the nasals, semivowels, and sibilants, bear to the other letters.

19. A vowel is defined to be a sound (svara) or vocal emission of breath from the lungs, modified or modulated by the play of one or other of five organs, viz. the throat, the palate, the tongue, the teeth, or the lips, but not interrupted or stopped by the actual contact of any of these organs.

a. Hence a, e i, z u, π ri, lri, with their respective long forms, are simple vowels, belonging to the guttural, palatal, labial, cerebral, and dental classes respectively, according to the organ principally concerned in their modulation. Bute andai are half guttural, half palatal;

See 18. c.

o andau half guttural, half labial.

b. The vowels are, of course, held to be soft letters.

20. A consonant is not the modulation, but the actual stoppage, of the vocal stream of breath by the contact of one or other of the five organs, and cannot be enunciated without a vowel. Hence the consonants from k to m in the table on p. I are often designated by the term sparsa or sprishța, resulting from contact ;' while the semivowels y, r, 1, v are called íshat-sprishța, ' resulting from slight contact.' By native grammarians they are sometimes said to be avidyamána-vat, 'as if they did not exist,' because they have no svara (sound or accent). Another name for consonant is vyanjana, probably so called as 'distinguishing' sound.

a. All the consonants, therefore, are arranged under the five heads of gutturals, palatals, cerebrals, dentals, and labials, according to the organ concerned in stopping the vocal sound.

b. Again, the first two consonants in each of the five classes, and the sibilants, are called hard or surd, i. e. non-sonant (a-ghosha), because the vocal stream is abruptly and completely interrupted, and no ghosha or sound allowed to escape; while all the other letters are called soft or sonant (ghosha-vat, 'having sound'), because the vocal sound is less suddenly and completely arrested, and they are articulated with a soft sound or low murmur (ghosha).

c. Observe, that the palatal stop is only a modification of the

guttural, the point of contact being moved more forward from the throat towards the palate *.

In the same way the cerebral (múrdhanya) stop is a modification of the dental. See 13.

d. The cerebral letters have probably been introduced into Sanskrit through pre-existing dialects, such as the Dráviḍian, with which it came in contact (see 24). As these letters are pronounced chiefly with the help of the tongue, they are sometimes appropriately called linguals.

21. A nasal or narisonant letter is a soft letter, in the utterance of which the vocal stream of breath incompletely arrested, as in all soft letters, is forced through the nose instead of the lips. As the soft letters are of five kinds, according to the organ which interrupts the vocal breathing, so the nasal letters are five, viz. guttural, palatal, cerebral, dental, and labial. See 15.

22. The semivowels y, r, l, v (called : antaḥstha or antaḥsthá because they stand between the other consonants and the sibilants) are formed by a vocal breathing, which is only half interrupted, the several organs being only slightly touched (ishatsprishta) by the tongue. They are, therefore, soft or sonant consonants, approaching nearly to the character of vowels-in fact, half vowels, half consonants. See 16.

a. Each class of soft letters (excepting the guttural) has its own kindred semivowel to which it is nearly related. Thus the palatal soft letters i, í, e e, è ai, j, have y for their kindred semivowel. Similarly r is the kindred semivowel of the cerebral soft letters ■ ri, ■ rí, and d; so also of the dentals π lṛi, & lṛí, and a dt; and av of 3 u, a ú, sì o, चौ au, and b. ab. b. The guttural soft letters have no kindred semivowel in Sanskrit, unless the aspirate

be so regarded.

* The relationship of the palatal to the guttural letters is proved by their frequent interchangeableness in Sanskrit and in other languages. See 24, 25, and 176, and compare church with kirk, Sanskrit catvár with Latin quatuor, Sanskrit ća with Latin que and Greek κaí, Sanskrit jánu with English knee, Greek yóvu, Latin genu. Some German scholars represent the palatals and by k' and g’.

That is a dental, and kindred tod, is proved by its interchangeableness with d in cognate languages. Thus lacrima, dáкpuμa. Compare also with λαμπ.

D

23. The sibilants or hissing sounds (called úshman by native grammarians) are hard letters, which, nevertheless, strictly speaking, have in some measure the character of vowels. The organs of speech in uttering them, although not closed, are more contracted and less opened (íshad-vivṛita) than in vowels, and the vocal stream of breath in passing through the teeth experiences a friction which causes sibilation.

a. The aspirateh, although a soft letter, is also called an úshman. b. The palatal, cerebral, and dental classes of letters have each their own sibilant (viz.,,, respectively, see 17). The Ardha-visarga, called Jihvámúlíya (x=X), was once the guttural sibilation, and that called Upadhmáníya (Z=Þ) the labial sibilation (see 8. a); but these two latter, though called úshman, have now gone out of use. Visarga (:) is also sometimes, though less correctly, called an úshman. The exact labial sibilation denoted by ƒ, and the soft sibilation z are unknown in Sanskrit.

24. That some of the consonants did not exist in the original Sanskrit alphabet, but have been added at later periods, will be made clear by a reference to the examples below, exhibiting the interchange of letters in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. The palatals ć, ćh, j, jh, ǹ were probably developed out of the corresponding gutturals; the cerebrals t, th, d, dh, n are thought to be of Dráviḍian origin; the guttural nasal n is evidently for an original n or m before a guttural letter; I is supposed to be a more modern form of r; s belongs to the palatal class, and is generally for an original k; sh is for an original s, cf. root ush, 'to burn,' with Lat. us-tu-s, from ur-o; h is for an original gh, sometimes for dh, and occasionally for bh (e. g. root grah, 'to seize,' for the Vedic grabh).

Of the vowels probably only a, i, u were original; ri is not original, and seems to have been a weakened pronunciation of the syllable ar, and at a later period lri of al. In Prákrit ri is represented by either i or u. The diphthongs are of course formed by the union of simple vowels (see 29).

INTERCHANGE OF LETTERS IN SANSKRIT, GREEK, AND LATIN.

25. The following is a list of examples exhibiting some of the commonest interchanges of letters in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin.

Sanskrit a Greek a, €, 0, Latin a, e, o, i, u; e. g. Sk. ajra-s, 'a plain,' Gr. ȧypó-s, L. ager; Sk. jan-as, 'race,' Gr. yév-os, L. gen-us; Sk. janas-as, gen. c., Gr. yéve()-os, yévous, L. gener-is; Sk. nava-s, 'new,' Gr. véo-s, L. novu-s; Sk. apas-as, 'of work,' L. oper-is.

Sanskrit á = Gr. α, n, w, = L. á, é, 6; e. g. Sk. má-tri (stem mátar-), ́a mother,' Gr. μnTnp (stem unτep-), Dor. μáτnp, Lat. máter; Sk. jňá-ta-s, ‘known,' Gr. yvw-Tó-5, L. (g)nó-tu-s; Sk. sámi-, ‘half,' Gr. μ-, L. sémi-,

Sanskrit i Gr. 1, L. i, e; e. g. Sk. sámi-, 'half,' Gr. -, L. semi-.

=

Sanskrit í Gr. 4, = L. í; e. g. Sk. jív-a-s, 'living,' Gr. Bío-s, L. vív-u-s.

=

Sanskrit u = Gr. v, = L. u, o; e. g. Sk. uru-s, ‘broad,' Gr. evpú-s; Sk. jánu, 'knee,' Gr. yovv, L. genu.

INTERCHANGE OF LETTERS IN SANSKṚIT, GREEK, AND LATIN. 19

Sanskrit ú= Gr. v, = L. u; e. g. Sk. músh, músh-a-s, &c., 'a mouse,' Gr. μũs,

L. mus.

Sanskrit ri, i. e. ar = Gr. p with a short vowel, = L. r with a short vowel; e. g. Sk. mṛi-ta-s, ‘dead,' Gr. Bpo-tó-s (for μpc-tó-s or μop-tó-s), L. mor-tuu-s; Sk. mátṛibhyas, from mothers,' L. matribus; Sk. mátṛishu, ‘in mothers,' Gr. μntpáσI.

=

Sanskrit rí Gr. p with a vowel, = L. r with a vowel; e. g. Sk. dátṛín, acc. pl. of dátri, 'a giver,' Gr. do-rip-as, L. da-tor-es; Sk. mátṛís, L. matres.

Sanskrit e Gr. al, El, 01,= L. ai, é, oi, æ, œ, i, ú; e.g. Sk. veś-a-s, ́an abode,' Gr. (F)iko-s, L. vicu-s; Sk. e-mi, 'I go,' Gr. el-; Sk. eva-s, 'going,' 'a course,' Gr. ai-wv, L. ævu-m.

=

Sanskrit ai Gr. g, n, a, L. æ in certain inflexions; e. g. Sk. devyai, ‘to a goddess,' Gr. bea, L. dex.

Sanskrit o = Gr. av, ev, ov, — L. au, o, u; e. g. Sk. gola-s, ́ a ball,' Gr. yavλó-s ; Sk. ojas, power,' L. augeo.

Sanskrit au Gr. av, nv, = L. au; e.g. Sk. nau-s, ‘a ship,' Gr. vaữs, vyũs, L. navis, nauta, 'a sailor.'

Sanskrit k, kh, ć, ś, = Gr. K, = L. c, q; e. g. Sk. kravis, kravya-m, ‘raw flesh,' Gr. κpéas, κpeïov, L. cru-or, caro; Sk. khala-s, ‘a granary,' śálá, ‘a hall,' Gr. kaλiá, L. cella; Sk. ća, ‘and,' Gr. κaí, L. -que.

=

=

Sanskrit g, j, Gr. y (B), L. g (b); e. g. Sk. yug-a-m, 'a yoke,' Gr. Çvy-ó-v, L. jug-u-m; Sk. jánu, ‘knee,' Gr. yóvv, L. genu; Sk. ajra-s, ‘a plain,' Gr. άypó-s, L. ager; Sk. gau-s, ‘a cow,' Gr. Boũ-s, L. bos; Sk. guru-s, 'heavy,' Gr. ßapú-s, L. grav-i-s.

Sanskrit gh Gr. X, L. g; e.g. Sk. rt. stigh, 'to ascend,' Gr oreix-w, OTIXO-s, L. ve-stig-ium; Sk. laghu-s, 'light,' Gr. λax-s.

=

Sanskrit ch Gr. OK, L. sc; e. g. Sk. cháyá, 'shade,' Gr. σKiά; Sk. rt. chid, 'to cleave,' Gr. oxíç-w, oxíd-n, L. scind-o.

Sanskrit t (th) = Gr. T, = L. t; e. g. Sk. trayas, 'three,' Gr. тpeïs, L. tres. Sanskrit d= Gr. 8, = L. d; e. g. Sk. dam-a-s, ‘a house,' Gr. dóμo-s, L. domu-s. Sanskrit dhGr. 9, L. initial f, non-initial d, b; e. g. Sk. da-dhá-mi, 'I place, Gr. Tí-On-μ; Sk. dhú-ma-s, ‘smoke,' Gr. Ov-μó-s, L. fu-mu-s; Sk. údh-ar, 'udder,' Gr. ooap, L. uber; Sk. andh-as, 'food,' &c., Gr. avo-os, L. ad-or.

Sanskrit p (ph) Gr. π (p), = L. p (ƒ); e. g. Sk. pitṛi, Gr. #arp, L. pater; Sk. phulla-m, a flower,' Gr. púλλc-v, L. foliu-m.

6

Sanskrit b= Gr. ß (7), = L. b (ƒ); e.g. Sk. rt. lamb, 'to hang down,' L. lab-i ; Sk. budh-na-s, 'ground,' Gr. πv-μýv, L. fundu-s; Sk. budh, 'to know,' Gr. πυνθάνομαι (πυθ-).

Sanskrit bh Gr. 4, = L. initial ƒ, non-initial b; e. g. Sk. rt. bhṛi, bhar-á-mi, 'I bear,' Gr. pép-w, L. fer-o; Sk. nabh-as, 'vapour,' 'a cloud,' Gr. vép-os,

L. nub-e-s.

Sanskrit n, n, Gr. Y before gutturals, = L. n; e.g. Sk. an'ka-s, 'a hook,' Gr. άyk-wv, öyk-o-s, L. anc-u-s, unc-u-s; Sk. pañćan, ‘five,' Gr. wévτe, L.

quinque.

Sanskṛit n, n, = Gr. ", = L. n; e.g. Sk. nava-s, 'new,' Gr. véo-ç, L. novu-s. Sanskrit m=Gr. μ,= L. m; e. g. Sk. má-tṛi, ‘a mother,' Gr. μý-typ, L. ma-ter. Sanskrit y=Gr. ', Y,= L. j; e.g. Sk. yakṛit, ‘liver,' Gr. πap, L. jecur; Sk. yug-a-m, Gr. Çvy-ó-v, L. jug-u-m.

Sanskrit r=Gr. p, λ,

sara-s, whey,' Gr. opó-s,

=

L. r, l; e. g. Sk. rájan, 'king,' L. rex (stem reg-); Sk. L. seru-m; Sk. rudh-i-ra-s, 'blood-red,' Gr. épve-pós, L. ruber, rufus; Sk. rt. śru, śravas, śru-ta-s, Gr. Kλé-05, KλU-TÓ-s, L. in-cly-tu-s. Sanskrit = Gr. A,= L. 1; e. g. Sk. rt. lú, lu-ná-mi, ‘I cut,' Gr. Aú-w, L. re-lu-o, so-lv-o (for se-lu-o); Sk. lih (=rih), 'to lick,' Gr. λeix-w, λíx-vo-s, L. ling-o, lig-uri-o.

Sanskrit v = Gr. ♬ (v), or disappears, = L. v (u); e.g. Sk. nava-s, 'new,' Gr. véFo-s, i. e. véo-s, L. novu-s; Sk. vish-a-s, 'poison,' Gr. ¡-ó-s, L. vírus; Sk. dvi, 'two,' Gr. duo, L. duo.

L. c, q; e. g. Sk. daśan, 'ten,' Gr. déka, πо-я, iкко-я, L. equu-s; Sk. śvá, ‘a dog,'

Sanskrit s, sh, Gr. σ,, disappears between two vowels, L. s, changes to r between two vowels; e. g. Sk. asti, 'he is,' Gr. eorí, L. est; Sk. janas-as, ́of a race,' Gr. yéve()-os, yévous, L. gener-is; Sk. vish-as, 'poison,' Gr. i-ós, L. vir-us; Sk. shat, 'six,' Gr. e, L. sex.

=

Sanskrit h (for an original gh, sometimes for dh, and occasionally for bh) = Gr. X, K (sometimes 0), L. h, c, q; e. g. Sk. hi-ma-s, winter,' Gr. X-wv, L. hiems; Sk. hṛid-aya-m, ‘the heart,' Gr. kapd-ía, L. cor (stem cord-); Sk. han for ghan and dhan (in ja-ghán-a, ‘he killed;' ni-dhan-a, 'death'), Gr. Oáv-aτos; Sk. hita for dhita, 'placed' (fr. dhá, Gr. On), Gr. Oerós.

THE INDIAN METHOD OF WRITING.

26. According to Hindú grammarians every syllable ought to end in a vowel*, except at the end of a clause or sentence, and every final consonant ought to be attracted to the beginning of the next syllable; so that where a word ends in a consonant, that consonant ought to be pronounced with the initial letter of the next word. Hence in some Sanskrit MSS. all the syllables are separated by slight spaces, and in others all the words are joined together without any separation. Thus the two words T आसीद् राजा ásíd rájá would in some books be written and in others

. There seems little reason for considering the mere spaces left between the words of a sentence to be incompatible with the

* Unless it end in Anusvára or Visarga ḥ, which in theory are the only consonantal sounds allowed to close a syllable until the end of a sentence.