not control the use of them: he named a council to assist him in the administration of civil affairs, but was dismayed at the cries for a representative assembly that should share in the government of the country.

8. In the summer of 1848 symptoms of reaction began to appear: Pius signified to the Roman Chamber of Deputies that it was asking too much; and his appointment of Rossi to the post of prime minister exasperated the people, and diminished his own popularity. Rossi's avowed hostility to the democratic movement led to his assassination on the 15th of November, as he was proceeding to open the Chambers; and eight days later the pope fled from Rome, and took up his residence in Gaeta,' in the territory of the king of Naples. On the 9th of February following, a National Assembly, elected by the people, proclaimed that the pope's temporal power was at an end, and that the form of government of the Roman States should be a pure democracy, with the name of "The Roman Republic."

9. Month after month Pius remained at Gaeta, unwilling to demand foreign aid to reinstate him in his temporal sovereignty, and hoping that his people, acknowledging their past misconduct, would recall him of their own accord; but no signs of any change in his favor being exhibited, he at length availed himself of the only resource left him. The Roman Catholic powers of Austria, Naples, Spain, and France, responded to his appeal for aid: the Austrians entered the Papal States on the north-the Neapolitans on the south-a body of Spanish troops landed on the coast-and, to the shame of republican France, towards the close of April a French army, under the command of General Oudinot, was sent to southern Italy, under the avowed pretence of checking Austrian influence in that quarter, but, in reality, as the sequel proved, to restore papal authority on the ruins of the Roman Republic.

10. The pretended " friendly and disinterested mission" of the French army was resisted with a heroism worthy of the days of the early Roman Republic, and the first attack of the French upon the city of Rome resulted in their defeat; but the assailants were reënforced, and, after a regular siege and bombardment, on the 30th of June, 1849, Rome surrendered. When the French troops entered the city they were received with silence and coldness on the part of the people;

1. Gaeta is a strongly-fortified seaport town, forty-one miles north-west from Naples, and seventy-two miles south-east from Rome. Cicero was put to death, by order of Antony, in the Immediate vicinity of this town.

the Roman guards could not be induced to pay them the customary salute; the common laborers refused to engage in removing the barricades from the streets, and the French soldiers were compelled to perform this task themselves. Pius the Ninth returned to Rome, stealthily, and in the night, a changed man. Three years of political experience had changed his zeal for reform into the most imbit tered feelings towards all democratic institutions: political tolerance gave place to the most determined support of absolutism; and the blessings with which his people once greeted him were changed to

curses.

V. HUNGARIAN WAR. 1. It has been mentioned that the immediate cause of the second Revolution in Vienna, in October 1848, was the order to some Austrian troops stationed in Vienna to march to the aid of the Croats, who had revolted from Hungary. The Hungarian and Croatian war soon became a war between Hungary and Austria. In order to understand the true character of this important war it will be necessary to explain the previous political connection' between the two countries.

2. The Magyars, from whom the present Hungarians are descended, were a numerous and powerful Asiatic tribe, which, after overrunning a great part of central Europe, settled in the fertile plains of the Danube and the Theiss,' about the close of the ninth century. For a long period the government of the Magyars was an elective monarchy, and in the year 1526 Ferdinand of Austria, of the house of Hapsburg, was elected to the throne of Hungary; and this was the first connection between the two countries. Seven succeeding Austrian princes of the same house were elected in succession by the Hungarian Diet, until, in the year 1687, the Diet declared the suc cession to the Hungarian throne hereditary in the house of Hapsburg; yet the independence of the kingdom was not affected thereby, although Hungary, with all its dependent provinces, among which was Croatia, became permanently attached to the Austrian dominions. The same as Bohemia, it acknowledged the Austrian emperor for its monarch; but Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia, were still separate nations, each governed by its own laws.

3. In the year 1790 Leopold the Second, emperor of Austria, yielded to the demands of the Hungarian Diet, and signed a solemn

1. The Theiss, (ancient Tibiscus,) a northern tributary of the Danube, is a large and navigable river of Hungary, flowing south through the great Hungarian plain. The area of its basin is estimated at six thousand square miles. (Map No. XVII)

declaration that "Hungary is a free and independent nation in her entire system of legislation and government," and that "all royal patents not issued in conjunction with the Hungarian Diet, are illegal, null, and void." After the peace of 1815, Francis the Second resolved to govern Hungary without the aid of a Diet, in violation of the laws which he had sworn to support; but after a long period of confusion he found it necessary, in 1825, to yield, and again summon the Diet. His attempt to subvert the constitution of Hungary, terminated in renewed acknowledgment of the constitutional rights of the Hungarians, and a reiteration of the declaratory act of 1790.

4. Ferdinand the Fifth, who succeeded his father Francis in 1835, took the usual coronation oath, acknowledging the rights, liberties, and independence of Hungary; and the project of incorporating Hungary with Austria seemed to be abandoned; but still the emperor, by the exercise of the royal prerogative in making appointments to office, could command a majority in the House of the Magnates, and, by the influence which he could exert in the elections, hoped to secure an ascendency in the House of Deputies. Moreover, the af fairs of Hungary, instead of being regulated in Hungary by native Hungarians, were managed by a bureau or chancery in Vienna, under the direct supervision and control of the Austrian cabinet. Austrian influence very naturally produced an Austrian party in the country, opposed to which was the great mass of the Hungarians, who took the designation of the Liberal or Patriotic party.

5. At a most opportune moment, just after the first Revolution in Vienna, in March 1848, when the emperor had conceded to the people of his hereditary States the rights and privileges which they demanded, a deputation from Hungary appeared, asking, for their kingdom, the royal assent to a series of acts passed by the Hungarian Diet, providing for its annual meeting, the union of Transylvania and Hungary, the organization of a National Guard, equality of taxation for all classes, religious toleration, freedom of the press, and a responsible ministry. After some delay these acts received the royal assent, and on the 11th of April were confirmed by the emperor personally, in the midst of the Diet assembled at Pesth,' the capital of Hungary. These concessions were received with the utmost joy throughout the Hungarian nation.

1. Pesth, which, in conjunction with Buda, is the seat of government of Hungary, is on the east side of the Danube, immediately opposite Buda, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. Population about sixty-five thousand. It is one hundred and thirty-five miles southcast from Vienna. (Map No. XVII.)

6. The sudden change from the restraints of a rigid government to the enjoyment of constitutional liberty, exerted, among the masses who had hitherto enjoyed no political privileges, and especially in the provinces dependent upon Hungary, an influence the most adverse to rational freedom. Liberty was construed to mean license in some places the Jews were plundered and maltreated: officers and jurors who did their duty were sacrificed to the vengeance of the mob: the imbittered feelings and prejudices of race were kindled into all their fury; and the most horrid atrocities were committed, while the new government, scarcely organized, was too feeble to afford protection to the persons and property of the more peaceful inhabitants. Calls upon the Austrian government for assistance from the Austrian troops in the provinces to suppress this anarchy were unheeded; and the indifference thus shown to the welfare of Hungary gave rise to the first threats of separation.

7. A more alarming danger to Hungary was the opposition against her in her own provinces, first secretly encouraged, and afterwards openly aided, by the Austrian government. The Hungarian dominions embrace a population of about fifteen millions, of whom only six millions are Magyars; and unfortunately the other eight millions were so jealous of the Magyar ascendency as to be found either cold to the cause of Hungary, or openly joining the Austrian party. First the Croats, a portion of the southern Slavi, or Slavonians,' af ter demanding entire independence of Hungarian rule, and showing a disposition to place themselves in more immediate connection with Austria, also a Slavonic nation, took up arms against Hungary, and rejected all advances towards reconciliation. Notwithstanding the unconstitutionality of their position, the emperor sided in their favor, and sent Austrian armies to their aid. Portions of Slavonia proper joined the Croats; and the Serbs, or Servians, in eastern Slavonia, distinguishing their revolt by the greatest atrocities, with unrelent ing fury laid waste the Magyar villages, and massacred the unresisting inhabitants. The actual beginning of the war on the part of Hungary was the bombardment, on the 12th of June, 1848, of Car

1. The Slavonians comprise a numerous family of nations, descendants of the ancient Sarmatians. The Slavonian language extends throughout the whole of European Russia; and dialects of it are spoken by the Croats, Servians, and Slavonians proper, and also by the Poles and Bohemians.

2. The Serbs or Servians, who belong to the wide-spread Slavonian stock, are inhabitants of the Turkish province of Servia; but many of the Serbs are scattered throughout the southern Hungarian provinces.

lowitz,' the metropolis or holy city of the Serbs. The city made a brave defence: the Ottoman Serbs hastened across the frontiers to the assistance of their brethren, and the Magyars were driven back into the fortress of Peterwardein.' The whole Servian race in the Banat3 then rose in rebellion, and the peninsula a at the confluence of the Theiss and the Danube became the theatre of a furious con

flict between the hostile races. Finally, on the 29th of June, the Austrian cabinet, throwing off all disguise, announced the intention of Austria to support Croatia openly. It soon appeared, also, that the altered condition of Austria, consequent upon the late triumphs of the imperial arms in Italy, had determined the emperor to revoke the concessions recently made to Hungary.

8. The Hungarian Diet, now convinced that the constitution and independence of Hungary must be defended by force of arms, decreed a levy that should raise the Hungarian army to two hundred thousand men. In the meantime Jellachich, the ban, or governor, of Croatia, had advanced unopposed into Hungary, at the head of an Austrian and Croatian army, and had arrived within twenty miles of Pesth, when the eloquence and energy of Kossuth, one of the leaders of the patriot party, collected a considerable body of troops, and on the 29th of September Jellachich was repulsed and the capital saved. The ban fled, and on the 5th of October the rear guard of the Croatian army, ten thousand strong, fell into the hands of the Hungarians.

9. Hitherto both parties, the invaders and invaded, appeared to be acting under the orders of the emperor-king, a kind-hearted man, but of moderate abilities, and unfitted for the trying situation in which he found himself placed. Wearied by the contentions in different parts of his empire, desiring the good of all his subjects, but distracted by diverse counsels, and involved, by a series of intrigues, in conflicting engagements, Ferdinand abdicated the throne on the

1. Carlowitz is a town of Slavonia, on the right bank of the Danube, four miles south-east of Peterwardein. (Map No. XVII.)

2. Peterwardein, the capital of the Slavonian military frontier district, and one of the strongest fortresses in the Austrian empire, is on the south bank of the Danube, in eastern Slavonia. It derives its present name from Peter the Hermit, who marshalled here the soldiers of the first crusade. (Map No. XVII.)

3. The Banat, or Hungary-beyond-the-Theiss, is a large division of south-eastern Hungary, having Transylvania on the east, and Slavonia on the west. (Map No. XVII.)

a." The very spot that was, in 1697, the theatre that witnessed the splendid victories of Eugene of Savoy over the Turks, and which were followed by the peace of Carlowitz, that memorable era in the history of the house of Austria and of Europe."-Stiles' Austria, ii. p. 68. See p. 390.