tikā, must be written tatashṭīkā; when combined with tam, must be retained tatastam. So also each of the letters, h, y, r, l, v, is plainly referrible to its particular class. Theh is pronounced from the throat, and therefore allied to the guttural class. They belongs to the palatal class, and in Bengali is always corrupted into j. The is allied to the cerebral letters and, and in Bengali these letters are often hardly distinguishable from in sound. The is evidently a dental. The, although partly dental, belongs to the labial class; and is so allied to b, that, in Bengali, it is always pronounced like b, and, in Sanscrit, is often interchanged with it."

*

† It may here be remarked, that although the column of nasals in the Table of Consonants (p. 1) has reference to the sibilants, aspirate, and semi-vowels, as well as to the other consonants; yet the mark Anuswara (*) is the proper nasal of these letters, and must always take the place of any other nasal that may be combined with them in the same word. Thus the preposition and the participle, when united in one word, are written संस्मृत; सम् and हार, संहार; सम and राग, संराग; and so on. But in every one of these cases the Anuswara takes the sound of the nasal of the class to which the following letter belongs. Thus is sounded as if written सन् स्मृत; संहार as if written सङ् हार; संलाप as if written सन् लाप. For the sake of brevity, however, the Anuswara is, in many books, written as the representative of the nasal of any letter, and not merely of the aspirate, semi-vowels, and sibilants.

* In Sanscrit, however, the letter is always pronounced either like v or w; like v when it stands by itself, or as the first member of a compound consonant, as in a vā, vyādha; like w, when it forms the last member of a compound consonant, as in dwāra.

+ सम्राज्, "an universal monarch," and, "properly," are the only words which violate this rule.

CHAPTER II.

SECT. I.-COMBINATION AND PERMUTATION OF LETTERS.

WE are accustomed in Greek and Latin to certain euphonic changes of letters. Thus in, combined with rogo, becomes irrogo; rego makes, in the perfect, not regsi but reksi, contracted into rexi; veho becomes veksi or vezi; συν with γνώμη becomes συγγνώμη; ἐν with λάμπω, ἐλλάμπω. These laws for the combination of letters are applied very extensively throughout the Sanscrit language; and that, too, not only in combining two parts of one word, but in combining all the words in the same sentence. Thus the sentence "Rara avis in terris" would require, by the laws of combination (called, in Sanscrit, Sandhi) to be written thus, Rarāvir ins terrih; and would, moreover, be written without separating the words, Raravirinsterrih. The learner must not be discouraged if he is not able thoroughly to understand all the numerous laws of combination at first. He is recommended, after reading them over with attention, to pass at once to the declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs: for to oblige him to learn by heart a number of rules, the use of which is not fully seen till he comes to read and construct sentences, must only lead to a waste of time and labour.

CHANGES OF VOWELS.

1. Nevertheless, there are some changes of letters which come into immediate application in the formation and declension of nouns, and the conjugation of verbs; and amongst these, the changes of vowels called Guna and Vriddhi should be impressed on the memory of the student, before he takes a single step in the study of the Grammar. When the vowels i and are changed to e, this is called the Guna change, or a change in quality; when i and are changed to ai, this is called the Vriddhi change, or an increase. Similarly, u and u are often changed to their Guna o, and Vriddhi au; ri and rī to their Guna ar, and Vriddhi ār; and

a, though it have no corresponding Guna change, has a Vriddhi substitute in ā.

2. Let the Student, therefore, never forget the following rule, or he will be confused at every step. There is no Guna substitute for a, but a is the Vriddhi substitute for a; e is the Guna, and ai the Vriddhi substitute for i and ; o is the Guna, and au the Vriddhi substitute for u and u; ar is the Guna, and ār the Vriddhi substitute for ri and ri

Again, let him never forget that y is the semi-vowel of i and 7; v is the semi-vowel of u and u; r is the semi-vowel of ri and rī.

*

3. Lastly let him bear in mind that the Guna dipthong e is supposed to be made up of a and i, and the Guna o, of a and u; so that a and i may often coalesce into e, and a and u into o. He will now understand the reason for the arrangement of vowels and semi-vowels given in the first Table. This Table is here repeated in the Roman character.

RULES FOR THE COMBINATION OF VOWELS.

4. If a word end with a or ā, when the next begins with a or ā, the two vowels are contracted into one long similar vowel. Thus na asti become nāsti.

A similar rule applies to the other vowels i, u, ri, short or long. Thus, adhi ishwara, adhishwara; kintu upaya, kintūpaya; pitri riddhih (fuŋ fa:), pitṛīddhih (fuqfz:).

5. If a word end with a or ā, when the next begins with i, u, ri, short or long, then a and i coalesce into e; a and u into o;

In the same way the Vriddhi diphthong ai is supposed to be made up of a or ā and e, and the Vriddhi au of a or a and o.

a and ri into ar. Thus, parama ishwara become parameshwara; hita upadesha, hitopadesha; gangā udakam, gangodakam; tava riddhih (f:), tavarddhih (nafs).

6. If a word end with a or ā, when the next begins with the Guna letters e, o, or the Vriddhi ai, au, then a or a with e or ai, coalesce into the Vriddhi ai; a or a with o or au, into au: as, deva aishwaryam become devaishwaryam; vidya eva become vidyaiva; alpa ojas, alpaujas; tatha aushadham, tathaushadham.

7. If a word end with i, u, ri, short or long, when the next begins with any other dissimilar vowel, i and i are changed to the corresponding semi-vowel y; u or u to v; ri or ri to r: as, prati uvācha become pratyuvācha; tu idānīm, twidānīm; matṛi ānanda (मातृ आनन्द) become mātrānanda ( मात्रानन्द).

8. If a word end with the diphthongs ai or au, when the next begins with any vowel, ai is changed to āy, and au to āv. Thus, tasmai uktah becomes tasmāyuktah; dadau annam, dadāvannam.

9. If a word end in e or o, when the next begins with a short, then e and o remain unchanged, and the initial a is cut off. Thus, te api are written te 'pi (sf); so api are written so 'pi (m-fa).

10. If a word end in e, when the next begins with any other vowel except a short, then e is supposed to be first changed to ay; but the y is usually dropped, leaving the a uninfluenced by the following vowel. Thus, te āgatah becomes ta āgatāh, (a

:).

It so happens that o, as the final of a complete word, is never likely to come in coalition with any initial vowel but short a. But in the case of e or o, as the finals of roots or crude forms, when the termination to be annexed begins with any vowel, whether a, a, i, or any other, then e is changed to ay, and o to av. Thus, je ati become jayati, bho ati become bhavati.

The following Table exhibits all the combinations of vowels at one view. Supposing a word to end in u, and the next word to begin with au, the student must carry his eye down the first column (headed "final vowels ") till he comes to ū, and then along the top horizontal line of "initial vowels," till he comes to au. At the junction of the perpendicular column under au and the horizontal line beginning u, will be the required combination, viz. v au.