Sandrokottos seems to have been an able general, CHAPTER IV. and no doubt spent much of his time with his army. Megasthenes describes his camp, which consisted of four hundred thousand men, and was yet maintained in good order and discipline. No useless or disorderly multitudes were tolerated. Theft was so rare amongst the troops, that the value of the articles stolen on any single day never exceeded two hundred drachmas. When the Raja sat as judge, he remained in the court the whole day, and allowed nothing to interrupt him. As regards his religious worship no further details are furnished; the reference, however, to his going out to sacrifice to the gods, proves that at this period, at any rate, the state religion was Brahmanical, whatever might have been the individual belief of Sandrokottos. The royal hunting expeditions are described at considerable length. The Raja went out with a crowd of women, who in their turn were surrounded on all sides by a number of spearmen; whilst drums and gongs were beaten in front, probably to warn off all intruders. The road was guarded with ropes, and every stranger who passed within the ropes, whether man or woman, was put to death. So long as the Raja hunted within the enclosures, he discharged his arrows from a high seat, whilst two or three armed women stood near him. When, however, he hunted in the open plain he discharged his arrows from an elephant, whilst his women accompanied him in chariots, or on horses and elephants. On these occasions all the women were provided with arms, as though they were going on a military expedition.46

16 Strabo, India, sect. 55. In the Hindú drama of Sakúntalú, Raja Dushy

CHAPTER IV.

Hindú bauquets.

Difference of civilization in

Hindustan.

Of the inner life of the palace nothing more is recorded. One statement, however, has been preserved which seems to indicate that the ambassador was familiar with one phase of old Hindú life. He says that it was the custom at banquets to place a table, like a side-board, before each individual. A golden dish full of boiled rice was then placed on each table; after which different sorts of meat dressed in the Indian style were served up to the several guests. In the present day a Hindú host will entertain his European guests in accordance with their own customs; but there is no reason to doubt that in the third century before Christ, Indian curries were served up much after the fashion described by Megasthenes.

47

The civilization which prevailed in the great the Punjab and Gangetic empire of Sandrokottos was essentially different from that of the Punjab kingdom under Porus. The people were strictly divided into castes and hereditary professions. Again, the army was not composed of contributions from feudatory princes, but was a vast standing camp, maintained solely at the charge of the king. The government was not administered by feudal or vassal chieftains, under a suzerain or lord-paramount; but by a network of officials which spread over the entire empire. The Raja, as already seen, was an irresponsible and all-powerful despot, bearing a closer resemblance to a Tartar monarch, like Chenghiz or Timour, than to a Rajpoot suzerain like Porus.

anta is represented as being attended in the chase by Yavana women, with bows in their hands, and wearing garlands of wild flowers. Professor Monier William's translation, Act II. Scene 1.

47 Megasthenes in Athenæus, Book IV. c. 39.

But before entering more minutely into these marks CHAPTER IV. of difference, it will be necessary to indicate the social structure and political administration of the great Gangetic empire.

tivators.

The mass of the population, and the main sup- Ryots or culport of the state, consisted of the husbandmen or cultivators, who answered to the modern Ryots. These cultivators were servants of the Raja. In other words, the Raja was not merely the sovereign of his dominions, but the actual proprietor of the land in the European sense of the word; and the Ryots cultivated this land as labourers, and received a share of the produce as wages. Thus a large proportion of the produce of the empire was stored up every year in the royal granaries, and partly sold to the trading and manufacturing classes, and partly devoted to the maintenance of the army and civil administration.48 Meantime the Ryots were apparently happy and contented. "They are," says

Megasthenes, "a most mild and gentle people. They never resort to the cities either to transact business, or to take a part in public tumults. They are exempted from all military service, and pursue their labours free from all alarm. Indeed it often happens that at the same time, and in the same part of the country, the army is engaged in fighting the enemy, whilst the husbandmen are sowing and. ploughing in the utmost security.""

49

The second important class, which also contri

buted to the support of the state, was composed of

the traders and artisans. All the members of this Traders and

48 This process of storing up the grain must have checked famine.

49 Megasthenes in Strabo, India, sect. 40. He states that the Ryot's share

was only one-fourth. This must be a mistake.

artisans.

CHAPTER IV. class carried on their several avocations under a system of official surveillance; as a tax was levied on every sale, and a stated service was required from every artisan. This was not in accordance with the European idea that tradesmen and mechanics should contribute to the support of the state in return for the protection they received; but originated in the Asiatic idea, that they should pay their lord and master, either in money or service, for the privilege of pursuing their several avocations within his dominions. The manufacturers of arms and builders of ships came under a different category. They were employed solely by the Raja, and worked for no one else; and they were paid for their services both in money and produce. The arms thus manufactured were stored up in the royal magazines; and were supplied to the soldiers by the commander-in-chief as occasion required, and returned to the magazines when the expedition was over. The ships that were constructed by the royal ship-builders were in like manner placed in the charge of the admiral of the royal navy, who hired them out to any merchant who might require shipping for the purposes of traffic.50

Army.

The third class consisted of the soldiers, who formed a standing army supported by the king. When not engaged on active service, they are said to have spent their time in idleness and drinking. But they were always ready to start on an expedition; for they had only to attend in person, and were furnished with all that was required through

50 Megasthenes in Strabo, India, sect. 46. The present Burmese government is of a somewhat similar character. The king has on occasions sought to be the only trader and manufacturer in his dominions.

out the campaign. Horses and elephants were CHAPTER IV. returned to the royal stables after every expedition. Every elephant carried four men on his back; the driver and three archers. Every chariot carried three men; the driver, and two fighting men. These chariots were only drawn by horses on the field of battle. On the march they were drawn by oxen, whilst the horses were led by a halter, so that their spirit might not be damped, or their legs chafed and inflamed, before going into action.51

sophers.

sembly.

The fourth class was composed of the so-called Sages or philophilosophers, some of whom were gymno-sophistæ, or "naked philosophers." Under this general head of philosophers are evidently included both Bráhmans and Buddhist monks; and the notices which have been recorded by Megasthenes, although somewhat confused, are worthy of particular consideration. "The philosophers," says Megasthenes, "are The Great Asthe smallest in number of all the castes, but they are the highest in rank. They are sometimes engaged by private persons to perform sacrifices. and other public rites. But they are also employed by the Raja in a public capacity, to collect any useful information which may tend to the improvement of the earth, or of the animals who live upon the earth, or conduce to the advantage of the state. At the beginning of every new year they attend the king at the gate, and form what is called the Great Assembly; and those who have made any discoveries, and committed them to writing, are expected on such occasions to declare them publicly. Those whose observations are found to be correct

51 Megasthenes in Strabo, India, sects. 47, 52.