known visible objects, why are they not at once visible to the mind? To this it may be answered, that only those objects which fall upon spirit [as upon the mirror] become known; or, in other words, those objects become known which the mind or intellect throws upon the mirror [spirit], but other objects remain unknown. Here the objector says, If it be thus, then spirit in the work of manifestation assumes the forms of visible objects, and becomes an agent in the events of life. To this Pătănjălee replies, that this connection between spirit as the displayer, and nature as displayed, is separate from all choice; it is the mere constitution of things, in which the parties are wholly unaffected. The sŭtwů goonŭ enjoys an immediate nearness to spirit, but the other goonus approach spirit through the sŭtwo. The mind, being united to the sǎtwŭ goonů, by its vicinity to spirit assumes the character of spirit, and becomes the agent in all things. Should it be objected, By this system of attributing every thing to intellect, you render spirit unnecessary, it is answered, that visible objects cannot render themselves visible, but must be made so by another; therefore there is a necessity for spirit, that through the medium of intellect it may do the work of manifestation. The mind, when under the influence of yogi, promotes the good of spirit, and when absorbed in sensible objects injures it; not that the mind can really bring good or evil upon spirit; this is only the sensible appearance of things. Should it be asked, Why the mind does not throw upon spirit the images of joy and sorrow at once, it is answered, that these impressions are opposed to each other, and therefore cannot be manifested at the same time. An objector here says, According to this system then, spirit is wholly excluded from all active operation in the affairs of the universe, and is a mere spectator: why then may we not maintain, that that which makes known is not spirit, but another power, another understanding? To this Pătănjălee replies, The understanding, or as many understandings as you please, must be parts of nature, and therefore can never fill the office of light, or do the work of manifestation. Should it be still objected, As you have maintained the doctrine of an unoperative spirit, a mere spectator of the universe, I have as clear a right to suppose that an illuminating understanding may be the cause of manifestation-To this I answer, that this proposition can never be maintained, for as there are opposing properties in the three goonus, the necessary union between that which makes known and the thing manifested would be wanting; in addition to which also there would be in this system as many agents of knowledge as individuals, instead of one spirit, the light of all. It must, however, be admitted, that although the under standing is not the cause of light, it does possess, in consequence of its nearness to spirit, a degree of radiance superior to every other part of nature. Spirit is identified with life, is independent, and unconnected. When the understanding approaches spirit, and clothes itself with the properties of spirit, it is then called light; and in this character it directs the affairs of the universe. If, says an opponent, the understanding is the universal agent, what proof is there left of the existence of spirit? Pūtănjulee says, Throughout universal nature, whatever exists by the conjunction of various causes, exists not for itself but for another; as therefore the operations of the understanding are regulated by the three goonus, the understanding must exist, not for itself but for another, and that other is spirit. Still, however, it must not be understood that spirit is united to things in a gross manner, but merely in connection with the sŭtwă goonů. Amongst all material objects, the most excellent is the body; those parts which are most excellent in the body are the senses; that which is more excellent than the senses, is mind under the influence of the sutwă goonŭ; after this, and separate from this, is spirit, which is identified with life, and in consequence is separate from all material objects. The object of the Patinjůlů dărshănŭ is to lead men to liberation; and this we shall consider in ten sentences thus: First, when a person has obtained discrimination, all his ideas of separate existence, as, I am chief, I enjoy, &c. are destroyed. The consequence of which is, that his mind is diverted from outward things, his thoughts are turned inward, and united to spirit: this is the commencement of liberation. Still, however, worldly anxiety, the effect of the impressions of former births, occasionally intrudes. This is to be overcome by perseverance in internal meditation. When the yogee has accomplished this, the irradiated understanding obtains a most clear manifestation, and visible objects sink into the shade. Then, by discriminating wisdom the work of illusion being brought to a close, illusion itself, from its origin in invisible atoms to its utmost progression, is destroyed-to revive no more. One kind of liberation, therefore, is the destruction of illusion, and the consequent separation of spirit from matter; and the other kind is comprehended in the deliverance of spirit from the operations of the understanding and in that clear effulgence with which it afterwards shines forth. SECTION XXII. The Nyayu* philosophy. Goutumů, whose soōtrus amount to 462 lines, was the distinguished founder of this school of philosophy. Some account of him will be found in page 224. The first commentator on his sootrus was Gungéshŏ-chintamănee; whose very excellent work might be comprized in a moderate octavo volume; and which is consulted at present by all those who study the Nyayŭ dŭrshŭnă.† Three learned Hindoos have written comments on Gangéshň, viz. Shiromunee, Bhuvanŭndă, and Mŏt'hoora-nat'hu. It is about 200 years since Shirominee wrote his comment; which, though much smaller than the others, is considered as the most able. The other commentators lived not many years after him. The learned men of Bengal are proud of the honour of considering this philosopher, who was born at Nudeeya, as their countryman: the following legends are current respecting him: When arrived at Mit'hila, to prosecute his studies under Vachuspйtee-mishrò, it is said, that he attained at once the seat next to his teacher, rising over the heads of all the other students. Puksh-dhuru-mishră, a very celebrated Nyayayiků p ndit, after having overcome in argument all the learned men of Hindoost'hanu, arrived with a great retinue, elephants, camels, servants, &c. at Nădeeya. The people collecting around him, he asked them who was the most learned man in those parts; they gave the honour to Shiromunee, who was, in fact, at that moment performing his ablutions in the Ganges; Păkshů, on seeing him, pronounced this couplet: "How sunk in darkness Gour‡ must be, Whose sage is blind Shiromunee."{' He then sent to the raja, challenging all the learned men at his court to a disputation; but Shiromunee completely overcame his opponent, and Mishră retired from the controversy acknowledging the superiority of the blind Shiromănee.|| Jugŭdeeshů-tůrkalůnkarů and Gădhadhŭrů, two learned men of Nudeeya, have written comments on Shirominee, which are extensively read in Bengal. Other comments are The The sound of this word resembles Naiyu. + Dúrshănă, from drishů, to see or know. name for Bengal. This pundit had lost the sight of one eye. This latter story is sometimes related in terms different from these. used in different parts of Hindoosť'hanŭ; but in Mit'hila the work of Bhuvanŭndă is preferred. The Nyayŭ durshănă is chiefly studied in Bengal and Mithila. Almost every town in Bengal contains some Nyayayiké schools, though they are most numerous at Nudēcya, Trivénée and Vasvariya. There are in Nudeeya not less than fifty or sixty schools: that over which Shivŭ-nať’hŭ-vidya-vachésputee presides, contains not less than one hundred students. Indeed, the Nyayă has obtained so decided a pre-eminence over all the dŭrshănăs now studied in these parts, that it is read by nine students in ten, while the other dŭrshinus are scarcely read at all. The truth is, that this is the only system of philosophy which in Bengal has remained popular after so many revolutions: at the festivals, he who can best dispute on the first principles of philosophical research as taught in the Nyayŭ, receives the highest homage, the most honourable seat, and the richest presents. He who is merely acquainted with the law books, and the poems, is always placed on a lower seat: yet the Nyayayikŭ is acquainted with only the very first rudiments of what was taught by his learned ancestors. As this is the only system of philosophy studied at present in Bengal, it may not be uninteresting to mention the different works read in these Nyayayikŭ schools: The first work put into the hands of the student, and which he commits to memory, is either the Bhasha-purichédů, or the Kunadŭ-bhashyň. From these works, and the instructions of the master, the student is taught all those logical terms by which nature in all its parts is described. After this he commits to memory the Vyaptee-punchŭků, by Shiromůnee, from which he learns to reason from an effect to its cause; and with this work is read the comment of Jugǎdeesho. After this the Siddhantă-lăkshůnů, by Shiromůnee, and its comment by Jugadeeshǎ; which contain answers to the objections made against the proofs of the reality of invisible things derived from inference. The student next reads the Poorvăpŭkshň, a work containing objections to the arguments of the Vyaptee-punchŭků; and replies to these objections. The next work explained to the student is the Vyŭdheekūrŭnů-dhŭrmavŭchinnabhavů, by Shirominee, and comments by Jăgădeoshi, Măť'hooranat'hu, and others: these works also are confined to the proofs of the existence of the first cause from created objects. The next work read is Vyaptee-grŏhopŭyŭ, a work on the means of obtaining the knowledge of proof arising from inference; and after this Pŭkshůta, a work on the union of things necessary to produce proofs of a first cause; Păramŭrshŭ, a similar work; Samanyŭ-lükshōnů, on proofs from similarity of species; Vi shéshŭ-vyaptee, on proofs arising from the distinctions of things; Vishéshă-nirooktee; Ŭnoomitee, on proofs from inference; Vadart'hŭ, on the meaning of terms; Ŭvöyüvŭ, five questions on the evidence arising from the union of cause and effect, with their answers; Nŭngvadă, a discourse on negatives; Shuktee-vadů, on sounds; Mooktee-vadă, on final liberation; Vyootpăttee-vadů, on the causes of things; Vidhee-vadă, on the meaning of terms; Pramanyŭ-vadă, on credible evidence ; Oopadhee-vadhu, on the meaning of terms. The last work read, is the Koosoomanjōlee, by Ooduyunacharyŏ.*—It must not be supposed, that every student reads all these works, or that every teacher is capable of giving instructions on them all: to proceed through the whole series occupies a youth at least twelve years. He who has pursued these studies to their close, is spoken of with admiration, thus, "He has read even the Koosoomanjǎlee." With the above-mentioned works various comments are used, according to the will of the teacher. An extract from the work of Vishwů-nat'hŭ-siddhantă will give a still clearer view of the subjects taught in these schools: The whole material system may be comprized in the terms existence and non-existExistence includes five ideas, matter, quality, actions, species, and constituent Non-existence includes four ideas: that which does not yet exist; that which ence. parts. is wanting; that which may be destroyed, and that which never existed. The wisdom of God comprehends and makes known all things.-Things, qualities, actions, and species are numerous.-Things include, matter, water, light, air, vacuum, time, space, life, and spirit.—Qualities belong only to things, and comprehend form, taste, smell, touch, numbers, measure, separation, union, inequality, greatness, distance, intellect, happiness, error, desire, envy, anxiety, weight, softness, fluidity, habit, works of merit and demerit, and sound.-Action includes, throwing upwards, throwing downwards, drawing towards, opening, and going. There are three causes of things: the material cause, as thread for weaving cloth; the incidental cause, as the stick with which the potter's wheel is turned, and the efficient cause, as the wheel upon which earthen ware is formed. Material causes belong only The Hindoos consider this work as that which overthrew the heresy of the Bouddhйs. |