manufacture has not really been advantageous. And it seems to be sufficiently established, that though the manufacture might not have been so widely diffused, it would have been in a sounder and healthier state, had it been less interfered with.

Bounties. - Besides premiums and encouragements of various kinds, bounties were granted on the exportation of linen for a very long period previously to 1830. In 1829, for example, notwithstanding it had then been very much reduced, the bounty amounted to about 300,000l., or to nearly one seventh part of the entire real or declared value of the linen exported that year! It is not easy to imagine a greater abuse. A bounty of this sort, instead of promoting the manufacture, rendered those engaged in it comparatively indifferent to improvements; and though it had been otherwise, what is to be thought of the policy of persisting for more than a century in supplying the foreigner with linens for less then they cost? We have not the least doubt that were the various sums expended in well-meant but useless attempts to force this manufacture, added together, with their accumulations at simple interest, they would be found sufficient to yield an annual revenue, little, if at all, inferior to the entire value of the linens we now send abroad. And after all, the business never began to do any real good, or to take firm root, till the manufacture ceased to be a domestic one, and was carried on principally in mills, and by the aid of machinery, a change which the old forcing system tended to counteract. The only real and effectual legislative encouragement the manufacture has ever met with, has been the reduction and repeal of the duties on flax and hemp, and the relinquishing of the absurd attempts to force their growth at home.

Spinning by the hand is now nearly unknown in Ireland, and the manufacture has disappeared from several parts of the country, where it had been largely introduced, leaving those who were partially dependent on it for subsistence, in a very depressed state. On the whole, however, there can be no doubt that the introduction of the factory system will be, in the end, most advantageous. Belfast has long been the great seat of the manufacture in Ireland, and there it is carried on in large factories furnished with the best machinery, and conducted on the most approved principle. In 1841, there were in the town and its immediate vicinity, 25 steam mills for spinning linen yarn, one of which employed 800 hands. In 1835, the exports of linen goods from Belfast, amounted to 53,881,000 yards of the value of 2,694,000l. According to the official returns, there were in Ireland, in 1838, 40 flax-mills employing in all, 9,017 hands.

The total average export of linens from Ireland during the 3 years ending with 1825, was 51,947,413 yards, of which 49,031,073 came to this country; the exports to all other parts being only 2,916,340. Since 1825, the trade between Ireland and Great Britain has been placed on the footing of a coasting trade; and linens being exported and imported without any specific entry at the Custom-house, no account is kept of their quantity and value.

Scotch Linen Manufacture. In 1727, a Board of Trustees was established in Scotland for the superintendence and improvement of the linen manufacture. It is not easy to suppose that the institution of this Board could of itself have been of any material service; but considerable bounties and premiums being at the same time given on the production and exportation of linen, the manufacture went on increasing. Still, however, it did not increase so fast as cotton and some others, which have not received any adventitious support, until machinery began to be extensively employed in the manufacture; so that it is very doubtful whether the influence of the bounty has been so great as it would at first sight appear to have been. The regulations as to the manufacture, after having been long objected to by those concerned, were abolished in 1822; and the bounties have now ceased. We subjoin

An Account of the Quantity and Value of the Linen Cloth manufactured and stamped for Sale in Scotland during the Ten Years ending with 1822, being the latest Period to which it can be made up.

This account is not, however, of much use. The stamp was only affixed to linen on which a bounty was paid, that is, on linen intended for exportation. Linen manufactured for home use, or intended for private sale, was not stamped. — (Headrick's Survey of Forfar, p. 506.)

Dundee is the grand seat of the Scotch linen manufacture; and its progress there during the last few years has been so extraordinary, that the following details in respect to it may not be unacceptable.

The manufacture appears to have been introduced into Dundee some time towards the beginning of last century; but, for a lengthened period, its progress was comparatively

slow. In 1745 only 74 tons of flax were imported, without any hemp; the shipments of linen cloth during the same year being estimated at about 1,000,000 yards, no mention being made either of sail-cloth or bagging. In 1791, the imports of flax amounted to 2.444 tons, and those of hemp to 299 tons; the exports that year being 7,842,C00 yards linen, 280,000 yards sail-cloth, and 65,000 do. bagging. From this period the trade began to extend itself gradually, though not rapidly. Previously to the peace of 1815, no great quantity of machinery was employed in spinning; but about this period, in consequence, partly and principally, of the improvement of machinery, and its extensive introduction into the manufacture, and partly of the greater regularity with which supplies of the raw material were obtained from the Northern powers, the trade began rapidly to increase. Its progress has, indeed, been quite astonishing; the imports of flax and hemp having increased from about 3,000 tons in 1814 to 15,000 tons in 1830, and 40,000 tons in 1845, of which at least 30,000 tons were spun by the mills in the town, the rest being spun in the vicinity. The value of the exports of manufactured goods and yarn, from Dundee, amounts at present (1847) to from 1,600,000l. to 1,700,000l. a year. We beg to subjoin

An Account of the Quantities of the different Varieties of Linen Goods exported from Dundee during each of the Four Years ending with 1845.

For some farther details as to the late extraordinary progress made by Dundee, the reader is referred to the art. Docks.

It is not easy to give any satisfactory explanation of the wonderful progress of the linen manufacture at Dundee. Something must be ascribed to the convenient situation of the port for obtaining supplies of the raw material; and more, perhaps, to the manufacture having been long established in the towns and villages of Strathmore, the Carse of Gowrie, and the northern parts of Fife, of which Dundee is the emporium. But these circumstances do not seem adequate to explain the superiority to which she has recently attained in this department; and, however unphilosophical it may seem, we do not really know that we can ascribe it to any thing else than a concurrence of fortunate accidents. Nothing, in fact, is so difficult to explain as the superiority to which certain towns frequently attain in particular departments of industry, without apparently possessing any peculiar facilities for carrying them on. But from whatever causes their pre-eminence may arise in the first instance, it is very difficult, when once they have attained it, for others to come into competition with them. They have, on their side, established connections, workmen of superior skill and dexterity in manipulation, improved machinery, &c. Recently, indeed, the advantages in favour of old establishments have been, to a considerable extent, neutralised by the prevalence of combinations amongst their workmen; but it is to be hoped that means may be devised for obviating this formidable evil.

Value of the Manufacture. Number of Persons employed. There are no means by

which to form an accurate estimate of the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr. Colquhoun estimated it at 15,000,000l.; but there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that this estimate was, at the time, absurdly exaggerated. In the last edition of this work we estimated the annual value of the manufacture at 7,500,000Z.* But it has increased very rapidly in the interval, principally through the great extension of the exports to France, and its value is at present (1847) certainly not under, if it do not exceed, 10,000,000l. or 12,000,000l. But taking it at the former amount, and setting aside a third part of this sum for the value of the raw material, and another third for profits, wages of superintendence, wear and tear of capital, coal, &c., we have 3,333,000l. to be divided as wages among those employed in the manufacture. And supposing each individual to earn, at an average, 241. a year, the total number employed would be about 133,000. It may be thought, perhaps, that 244. is too low an estimate for wages; and such, no doubt, would be the case, were not Ireland taken into the average. But as many persons are there employed in the manufacture at very low wages, we believe that 241. is not very far from the mean rate.†

* Sir F. M. Eden estimated the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain, in 1800, at 2,000,000.-(Treatise on Insurance, p. 76.)

A great number of persons in Ireland are only partly employed in the manufacture; but the above estimate supposes that the 133,000 individuals are wholly employed in it.

The rapid increase in the exports of linen goods and yarn, especially the latter, to France (see, for an account of this increase, the art. HAVRE), though latterly they have declined, is wholly a consequence of their comparative cheapness in this country, occasioned by our superior and cheaper machinery. And if the French really wish to rival us in this department of industry, they should endeavour, by reducing or repealing the oppressive duties on iron and machinery imported into France (which would, of course, proportionally reduce the cost of spinning mills and power-loom factories), to place their manufacturers and spinners on something like the same footing as ours. In this way they might, perhaps, have some chance of rivalling us; but the attempts that have recently been made to bolster up the manufacture by means of duties, must necessarily fail; and will have no effect but to perpetuate exploded practices and to promote the trade of smuggling.

Our exports of linen goods are also increasing to most other countries, as well as to France; and we are gaining on the Germans in most markets that are equally accessible to both. Hence the decrease of late years in the export of linens from Hamburg. (See HAMBURG.)

The improvement in the manufacture of damasks and table linen generally, which is principally carried on in Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy, has been quite as striking as in the other departments of the trade, especially since the introduction of the Jacquard mounting. In fact, table linen is now shipped from this country for Germany; so that the duty of 10 per cent. on the importation of German damasks and such like fabrics might be reduced or repealed without the measure having any injurious influence over the manufacture.

Consumption of Foreign Linens.—It will be seen from the returns of the imports and entries of foreign linens for the 4 years ending with 1844, given on page 688., that the consumption of foreign linens in this country is quite inconsiderable; the real or declared value of those entered for home consumption, in 1844, could hardly amount to 40,000l.

Account of the Quantities and Values of the Linen Manufactures and Linen Yarn exported from the U. Kingdom in 1845, specifying the Countries to which the same were exported, and the Quantities and Values of those sent to each.

Regulations as to the Linen Manufacture. — Any person, native or foreigner, may, without paying any thing, set up in any place, privileged or not, corporate or not, any branch of the linen manufacture; and foreigners practising the same shall, on taking the oath of allegiance, &c., be entitled to all the privileges of natural born subjects. - (15 Cha, 2. c. 15.)

Persons affixing stamps to foreign linens in imitation of the stamps affixed to those of Scotland or

Ireland, shall forfeit 57. for each offence; and persons exposing to sale or packing up any foreign linens as the manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland, shall forfeit the same and 51. for each piece of linen so exposed to sale or packed up. (17 Geo. 2. c. 30.)

Any person stealing to the value of 101. any linen, woollen, silk, or cotton goods, whilst exposed during any stage of the manufacture in any building, field, or other place, shall, upon conviction, be liable at the discretion of the court to be transported beyond seas for life, or for any term not less than 7 years, or to be imprisoned for any term not exceeding 4 years, and, if a male, to be once, twice, or thrice publicly or privately whipped, as the court shall think fit.-(7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 29. § 14.)

LIQUORICE (Ger. Sussholz; Fr. Réglisse, Racine douce; It. Regolizia, Logorizia, Liquirizia; Sp. Regaliz Orozuz), a perennial plant (Glycirrhiza glabra), a native of the south of Europe, but cultivated to some extent in England, particularly at Mitcham in Surrey. Its root, which is its only valuable part, is long, slender, fibrous, of a yellow colour, and when fresh very juicy. The liquorice grown in England is fit for use at the end of 3 years; the roots, when taken up, are either immediately sold to the brewers' druggists, or to common druggists, by whom they are applied to different purposes, or they are packed in sand, like carrots or potatoes, till wanted.

LIQUORICE JUICE (Succus Liquoritia), popularly black sugar, the inspissated juice of the roots just mentioned. Very little of this extract is prepared in Britain, by far the larger part of our supply being imported from Spain and Sicily. The juice obtained by crushing the roots in a mill, and subjecting them to the press, is slowly boiled till it becomes of a proper consistency, when it is formed into rolls of a considerable thickness, which are usually covered with bay leaves. This is the state in which we import it. Most part of it is afterwards redissolved, purified, and cast into small cylindrical rolls of about the thickness of a goose quill, when it is called refined liquorice. It is then of a glossy black colour, brittle, having a sweet mucilaginous taste. It is used in the materia medica, particularly in coughs, colds, &c. -( Thomson's Chemistry; Thomson's Dispensatory.)

The imports in 1840 and 1841 amounted, at an average, to 7,123 cwt. a year. The oppressive duty of 31. 158. a cwt., with which it was loaded down to 1842, was reduced in the course of that year to 27s. 6d. (See TARIFF.)

LISBON, the capital of Portugal, situated on the north bank of the river Tagus, the observatory of the fort being in lat. 38° 42' 24" N., lon. 9° 5' 50" W.

about 240,000.

Population

Port. The harbour, or rather road, of Lisbon is one of the finest in the world, and the quays are at once convenient and beautiful. Fort St. Julian marks the northern entrarce of the Tagus. It is built on a steep projecting rock. There is a light-house in the centre, 120 feet above the level of the sea. At the mouth of the Tagus are two large banks, called the North and South Cachops. There are two channels for entering the river; the north or little, and the south or great channel, exhibited in the subjoined plan. On the middle of the South Cachop, about 1 mile from Fort St. Julian, is the Bugio fort and light-house, the latter being 66 feet in height. The least depth of water in the north channel on the bar is 4 fathoms, and in the south, 6. The only danger in entering the port arises from the strength of the tide; the ebb running down at the rate of 7 miles an hour; and after heavy rains, when there is a great deal of fresh water in the river, the difficulty of entering is considerably augmented. When, at such periods, there is a strong wind from the sea, there is a complete break all over the bar; vessels moor up and down the river with open hawse to the southward. In some parts they may come within 200 yards of the shore, being guided by the depth of water, which, from nearly 20 fathoms in mid-channel, shoals gradually to the edge.

References to Plan.-A, Fort St. Julian and light-house. B, Bugio fort and light-house. C, Barcarena look-out house. D, Belem Castle. E, Point Cassilhas. F G, Bugio Fort and Sugar Loaf Hill in one, mark the north channel.

Trade, &c. - Lisbon is one of the best situated commercial cities of Europe. But notwithstanding this circumstance, the excellence of the port, and the command of the navigation of the Tagus, her commerce is comparatively trifling. The despotism, intolerance, and imbecility of the government have weighed down all the energies of the nation. The law and police being alike bad, there is no adequate security. Assassination is very frequent. Industry of all sorts is, in consequence, paralysed; and since the emancipation of Brazil, commerce has rapidly declined. Formerly Lisbon had about 400 ships, of from 300 to 600 tons burden, employed in the trade with South America. But at present there are not above 50 ships belonging to the port engaged in foreign trade; and, of these, the average burden does not exceed 150 tons! The produce of Portugal sent to foreign countries, is almost entirely conveyed to its destination in foreign ships. The trade between Lisbon and Cork is, we believe, the only exception to this; it being principally carried on in Portuguese vessels, which take salt from St. Ubes, and bring back butter in return. About 200 small craft belong to the city, which are exclusively employed in the coasting trade.

There are neither price currents, shipping lists, nor official returns of any kind, published in Lisbon. The principal exports are lemons and oranges-which, however, are very inferior to those of Spain; wine, particularly Lisbon and Calcavella; wool, oil, tanned hides, woollen caps, vinegar, salt, cork, &c. Besides colonial produce, the principal imports consist of cotton, woollen, and linen goods; hardware, earthenware, dried fish, butter, corn, cheese, timber and deals, hemp, &c.

Money. Accounts are kept in rees, 1,000 of which = 1 milree. In the notation of accounts the marees are separated from the rees by a crossed cypher (), and the milrees from the millions by a colon: thus, Rs. 2:700 500 = 2,700 milrees and 500 rees.

The crusado of exchange, or old crusado, 400 rees; the new crusado 480 rees; the testoon = 100 rees; and the vinten or vistem 20 rees.

The gold piece of 6,400 rees 358. 11d. sterling; the gold crusado = 26. 3d.; and the milree, valued in gold, = 671⁄2d. sterling. It appears, however, from assays made at the London mint, in 1812, on modern silver crusados, that the average value of the milree in silver may be estimated at 60d. or 5 sterling.

Weights and Measures. The commercial weights are, 8 ounces 1 marc; mares=1 pound or arratel; 22 pounds 1 arroba; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal; 100 lbs. or arratels of l'or tugal 101-19 lbs. avoirdupois 45-895 kilog. = 94-761 lbs. of Harburg 92-918 lbs. of Amsterdam.

The principal measure for corn, salt, &c. is the moyo, divided into 15 fanegas, 30 alquiéres, 240 quartos, 480 selemis, &c. The moyo 23-03 Winchester bushels.

The principal liquid measure is the alinude, divided into 2 potes, 12 canadas, or 48 quartellos; 18 almudes = 1 baril; 26 aimudes 1 pipe; 52 afmudes = 1 tonelada. The almude 4:37 English wine gallons; and the tonelada = 2271 ditto. A pipe of Lisbon is estimated by the Custom-house (British) at 140 gallons; and this pipe is supposed to be 31 almudes.

A pipe of port is 168 gallons, divided into 21 almudes of
Oporto.

Of measures of length, 2 pes = 3 palmos = 1 covado, or cubit; 1 covados vara; 2 varas 1 brança. The pe

or foot 19-944 English inches; 100 fect of Portugal = 107-8 English feet: the vara = 432 English inches.

For freight a last is reckoned at 4 pipes of oil or wine, 4 chests of sugar, 4,000 lbs. of tobacco, 3,600 ibs. of shumac. But from one place in Portugal to another, a tonelada is reckoned at 52 almudes of liquids, or 54 almudes of dry goods. Coffee is sold per arraba; cotton, indigo, and pepp, per lb.; oil, per almude; wine, per pipe; corn, per alquiere; salt, per moyo.

Grain, seed, fish, wool, and timber are sold on board. Weights and long measures are the same throughout Pertugal; but there is a great discrepancy In the measures of capacity. The almude and alquiére, at the principal places, are in English measures as follows:Lisbon

Oporto

Faro

Faro
Figuiera

Vianna

3:07

Almude 5:57 gall. Eng. wine measure
Alquiére
Almude
Alquiere 34
Almude 4)
Alquiere 3
Almude
Alquiére =
Almude
Alquiére =

Winch. measure wine measure Winch. measure wine measure Winch. measure wine ne asure Winch. measure wice measure Winch. measure.

Bank of Lisbon. This establishment was founded in 1822. Its capital consists of about 700,000Z. sterling, divided into 7,000 shares. The shareholders are not liable beyond the amount of their shares. The bank discounts bills not having more than 3 months to run, at 5 per cent. Its dividends, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, were about 6 per cent. It enjoys the singular but valuable privilege of having its claims on all estates paid off in full, provided the estate amounts to so much; other creditors being obliged to content themselves with a division of the residue, if there be any.

Port Regulations. All vessels entering the Tagus are obliged to come to anchor off Belem Castle, where there is an office at which they must be entered, their cargoes declared, from whence they come, and whether the cargo be intended to be horded in Lisbon or not; if not, the master applies for “franquia," that is, for leave to remain 8 days in the port for the purpose of disposing of the cargo or of departing with it. Two Custom-house officers are then sent on board, and if the cargo is to be discharged at Lisbon, the vessel proceeds to the Custom-house, when the master makes entry, delivering the manifest and bills of lading attached to the certificate of the Portuguese consul, at the port of lading, in order to identify the cargo. The officers put on board at Belem are then relieved by 2 others, who remain until the vessel be discharged and visited by the Custom-house searcher. The port dues have to be paid in different offices; but the vessel is not subject to any other charges.

All goods sent on board for exportation must be accompanied by a permit from the Custoin-house. When the clearances are obtained, the papers are presented by the master, or the ship's agent, to the authorities at Belem, who deliver the signal the vessel is to hoist when going to sea.

There is no regular warehousing and bonding system at Lisbon. All impuried dry goods are allowed to remain in the Custom-house stores 2 years, and liquids 6 months, without being charged warehouse rent, provided they are intended for consumption, and pay the duties accordingly. But if, after that period, they are taken out to be exported, they are charged 2 per cent, duty.

Port Charge. on a foreign ship of 300 tons entering the port

Vessels coming with a cargo, or in ballast, and departing in ballast, pay 200 rees per ton rights, or 4 times as much as if they sailed with cargoes. Vessels coming with a cargo, and sailing with the same cargo, pay no tonnage duty.

Commission. The ordinary rates of commission are, on the sale of goods, 23 per cent.; del credere, 2; per cent.; on the value of goods landed from a vessel putting in to effect repairs, 1 per cent.; on ship's disbursements, 3 per cent. Insurances are effected to a trifling amount. There is 1 national company for effecting insurances; but it enjoys little credit.

Tures are not regulated by any certain rule. Those allowed are generally those invoiced or inarked on the package. — (Sce Annuaire du Commerce Maritime, p. 290.; Kelly's Cambist; Consul's Answers to Circular Queries, &c.)

LITERARY PROPERTY. See Books. LITHARGE (Ger. Glütte, Glätte; Du. Gelit; Fr. Litharge; It. Litargirio; Sp. Almartaga, Litarjirio; Rus. Glet; Lat. Lithargyrium), an oxide of lead in an imperfect state of vitrification. Most of the lead met with in commerce contains silver, from a few grains to 20 ounces or more in the fodder: when the quantity is sufficient to pay the expense of separation, it is refined; that is, the metal is exposed to a high heat,