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XI. Account of the Quantities and Values of the principal Articles of British Produce and Manufacture exported to Russia during each of the Five Years ending with 1841.

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Quantities.

Declared

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Declared

Value. Quantities. Value. Quantities. Value. Quantities. Value. Quantities. Value.

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9,106

Beer and ale

Books, printed

Coals, culm, and cinders -
Cotton manufactures, en-

tered by the yard hosiery, lace, and small

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twist and yarn Earthenware of all sorts Hardware and cutlery

Iron and steel, wrought

9,594 Ihs. 24,108,593 1,612,956 19,794,501 1,236,584 18,849,506 1,215,621 16,884,418 1,082,912 17,508,142′1,096, 106 pieces 252,7221 4,155 189,391 3,745 210,021 4,260 185,215 4,052) 213,754

8,909

519

1,202

135

20,128

78,054

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59,137 1,706,578

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- cwts.

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and unwrought

tons

Lead and shot

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Machinery and mill-work

16,464

18,714

30,911

34,092

29,600

Salt

Sugar, refined

bushels
cats.

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23,132 1,495,560

26,107

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10,896

19,801

11,115

21,287

Tin, un wrought

3,025

12,239

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15,165
5,802

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Woollen and worsted yarn lbs.

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144,308

22,321

141,934

23,380

166,039

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Ditto by the yard

- yards

50,278 6,901 46,053

4,291

All other articles .

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57,687 2,046,592

53,441

81,760 7,617
78,620

70,439 7,825 100,039 7,037

54,771

63,413

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XII. Account of the Quantities or Values of the Principal Articles of Russian Produce and Manufacture imported from Russia into the U. Kingdom during each of the Five Years ending with 1847.- (Parl. Paper, No. 583, Sess. 1848.)

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Of the above Articles the following Quantities were imported from Russian ports on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azoff.

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In compiling this article, we have consulted Schnitzler, Essai d'une Statistique Générale de la Russie, pp. 133-157.; and his Russie, Pologne, et Finlande, pp. 187-289.; Richard, Traité Général du Com merce, ed. 1781, ii. pp. 268-317.; Tooke's View of Russia, book 12.; Core's Travels in the North of Europe, 8vo ed. ifi. pp. 283--358. &c.; Clark's Russian Trader's Assistant, a valuable and useful work; Supplement au Journal de St. Petersbourg, for 1842; Consular Returns from Petersburg and Odessa: but we have derived our principal information from the official returns published by government, and private communications of eminent Russian merchants.

PEWTER (Ger. Zinn, Zinngeisserzinn; Fr. Etain; It. Stagno; Sp. Estano, Peltre; Rus. Olowo), a factitious metal used in making plates, dishes, and other domestic utensils It is a compound, the basis of which is tin. The best sort consists of tin alloyed with about 1-20th or less of copper, or other metallic bodies, as the experience of the workmen has shown to be most conducive to the improvement of its hardness and colour, such as lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony. There are 3 sorts of pewter, distinguished by the names of plate, trifle, and ley-pewter. The 1st was formerly much used for plates and dishes; of the 2d are made the pints, quarts, and other measures for beer; and of the ley-pewter, wine measures and large measures. — (Ure.)

PHILADELPHIA, a large city and sea-port of the United States, in Pennsylvania, near the confluence of the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, lat. 39° 57′ N., lon. 75° 10 59 W. Population, in 1850, 409,353.

Harbour, Light-houses, Pilotage, &c. Vessels of the largest burden ascend the river as far as Newcastle, but those drawing above 18 or 20 feet water cannot reach Philadelphia, on account of a bar a little below the city. The entrance to the magnificent bay formed by the embouchure of the Delaware, has Cape May on its north, and Cape Henlopen on its south side. The former, in lat. 38° 57′ N., lon75 47 45" W., is a sandy headlarid, rising about 12 feet above the level of the sea. It has recently been surmounted by a light-house 60 fect in height. The light revolves once a minute; an eclipse of 50 seconds being succeeded by a brilliant flash of 10 seconds. It is seen in clear weather from 20 to 25 miles off. Cape Henlopen, marking the southern boundary of the bay, is in lat. 38° 47′ N., lon. 75° 4′ 45′′ W. A little south from it is a hill, elevated about 60 feet above the level of the sea; and on it is erected a light house, 72 feet in height, furnished with a powerful fixed light visible in clear weather 10 leagues off. To the N. of this principal light, and close to the extremity of the cape, a second light-house has been constructed, 36 feet above the level of the sea, which is also furnished with a fired light, which may be seen about 6 leagues off. The channel for large ships is between Cape Henlopen and the banks called the Overfalls. The navigation is, however, a little difficult, and it is compulsory on ships to take pilots. The latter frequently board them at sea; but if not, as soon as a ship comes between the capes, she must hoist the signal for a pilot, and heave to as soon as one offers to come on board. -(Coulier sur les Phares, 2d ed. See post, for regulations as to pilotage.)

Trede. The trade of Philadelphia is very extensive. She communicates by various canals (one of which, 3954 miles in length, unites her with Pittsburg, on the Ohio) and railways with the interior, and is the grand dépôt for the coal of the Union. The increase of the coal trade has, indeed, been quite unprecedented. Previously to 1825 no coal had been sent down the Schuylkill, and in that year only 5,306 tons were brought by that channel to Philadelphia, whereas in 1846 the quantity amounted to 1,145,583 tons, exclusive of about as much more supplied by other channels. Very large quantities of this coal are sent coastwise to other ports of the Union. Exclusive of coal and iron, the exports principally consist of wheat and wheat flour, Indian corn, of which immense quantities have latterly been sent to England, and other agricultural products, timber, and various species of manufactured goods. The principal imports are cotton, woollen, and silk goods; sugar, coffee, and tea; wines, brandies, spices, dye-stuffs, &c. In point of shipping, Philadelphia is the fourth port in the Union, being, in this respect, inferior only to New York, boston, and New Orleans. The registered, enrolled, and licensed tonnage belonging to the port on the 30th June, 1849, amounted to 188,087 tons, of which upwards of a half was engaged in the coasting trade, which is very large. The total value of the articles imported into Pennsylvania from foreign countries in the year ending the 30th of June, 1849, amounted to $10,645,500, and that of the exports to $5,343,421, of which 84,850,827 were domestic produce. The coasting trade of the port is, however, more extensive and of greater importance than its foreign trade. There are numerous banks in Philadelphia, but they stand no higher in point of character than those in most other parts of the Union, and have over and over again suspended payments. The Bank of the United States had its head office here. Besides banks, there are numerous insurance companies, and joint-stock associations.

The following statement of the prices of shares in sundry banks and other public companies in Philadelphia, in September, 1836, and September, 1846, shows, better than any thing else could do, the vicious nature of the foundations on which they had been established:

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The value of the imports and duties received at the Custom-house, at the port of Philadelphia, have been as follows :—

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The annual inspection of flour and meal at Philadelphia for five years, have been as follows:

Duties.

$2,904,749 2,420,662

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The following is a statement of the amount and value of the leading articles of domestic produce, exported from Philadelphia, in the two years ending 30th of December:

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Account showing the Number of Vessels, discriminating between Arrivals Foreign and Coast wise, which entered the Port of Philadelphia from the 1st of January, 1825, to the 1st of January, 1840.

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In Pennsylvania, the dollar is worth 7s. 6d. currency; so that 17. sterling 17. 138. 4d. currency. (See NEW YORK.)

Weights and Measures same as those of England.

Regulations of the Port. If any master or captain of any ship or vessel, or other person, shall refuse or neglect to comply with the directions of the harbour master, in matters within the jurisdiction of his office, such person shall, for each and every 'such offence, severally forfeit and pay any sum not exceeding 100 dollars. And the said harbour inaster, shail in full compensation for his services be entitled to have, recover, and receive from the master, captain, owner, or consignee of each and every ship or vessel arriving at the port of Philadelphia (coasting vessels not exceeding the burden of 75 tons excepted) the sum of 1 dollar for each and every voyage by such ship or vesel performed, and no more.

Every ship or vessel that may arrive in this harbour, and that shall come to anchor in the stream anywhere between Almond and Vine Streets, having previously caused her gunpowder, if any she had on board, to be landed as the law directs, may remain in that situation 24 hours, and no longer, taking care to lie as near to the island or sand bar as may be consistent with their safety. But if, from the circumstance of a vessel having servants on board, or from any other cause, it may be thought necessary or convenient to lie a longer time in the stream, then, and in every such case, the owner, master, pilot, or other person having the charge or direction of such vessel, shall remove her from opposite the city, and shall moor her, or cause her to be moored, to the northward of Vine Street, with 1 anchor and cable up and 1 anchor and cable down the stream; and in both the above-mentioned situations, the regulation contained in the next succeeding article to be duly attended to.

If any vessel properly moored in the stream shall have her anchor or cable overlaid by any other vessel in anchoring or mooring, the master or person having the care or direction of such last-mentioned vessel shall immediately, or as soon as may be after application made to him by the party aggrieved, cause the said anchor or cable so overlaying to be taken up and cleared. When any ship or vessel shall be hauled in to any wharf or dock, or alongside of another vessel that may be lying at such wharf or dock, the owner, master, pilot, or whoever may have the command, care, or direction of her, shall have her securely made fast; and if outside of another vessel, shall get one good fast from each end of the vessel to the shore, with sufficient fenders between them and the inside vessel; and shall cause the flukes of their anchors to be taken on board; and, within 24 hours thereafter, cause her jib boom, pritsailyard, main boom, spanker and ringtail booms, if any they have, to be rigged in, and their lower yards topped up, in such a manner as least to interfere with vessels passing.

If the fasts of vessels when moored at a wharf shall extend across a dock, so as to obstruct the passing or repassing of shallops, lighters, or other craft or vessel, the master or other person having the command of such ship or vessel shall, upon the first application, immediately cause such fast or fasts to be cast off or slacked down.

No outward-bound vessel, putting off from a wharf, shall lie longer in the stream between Vine Street and Almond, in the district of Southwark, above mentioned, than 24 hours. And if vessels lying at the end of wharfs so much interlock with each other as to prevent vessels hauling in and out of docks, the master, owner, pilot, or other person having the charge of the same, shall, immediately on application from any person so wanting to haul his vesel in or out of docks aforesaid, have the vessel or vessels so interfering, moved in such a manner as to accommodate the one applied for; in which case the vessel making room for another to haul in or out shall have liberty to make her warps fast to the most convenient place adjacent, for a reasonable time; and all sea vessels, when transporting or wanting to haul into a wharf or dock, or to make sail in order to proceed to sea, shall have the same privilege.

When any ship or vessel may be lying alongside any wharf, and not taking in or discharging, she shall make way for and permit any vessel that wants to unload or load, to come inside, next the wharf, until she discharges or loads her cargo; and the said vessel, when so discharged or loaded, shall haul out. side and give way to the vessel that first occupied the wharf; provided that, from the 10th of December to the 1st of March, no vessel shall be compelled to move from her birth (only those at Gloucester Point piers), excepting to let vessels in and out of docks.

No ship or vessel loading or discharging hemp at any wharf, or within any dock, shall be allowed to have any fire on board;

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Every vessel arriving from, or bound to, a foreign port, is required by law to receive a pilot, or to pay half pilotage in the warden's office; where the master of every such vessel is required, under a penalty of 10 dollars, to make report within 36 hours after his arrival, and again before his departure, signing his name to said report in the warden's book.

Every vessel of 75 tons and upwards arriving from, or bound to, any port within the United States, and the master of all such vessels, are bound as above.

The pilot of every vessel is required to inform the master of his having to report at the warden's office.

All vessels obliged to receive a pilot are required to pay 10 dollars in addition, as winter pilotage, from the 20th of November to the 10th of March, both days inclusive.

Foreign vessels, i. e. French, Spanish, Portuguese. Nespolitan, Danish, Russian, South American, and Haytian, to pay 2 dollars 67 cents in addition to other pilotage.

Every pilot detained more than 24 hours by any master, owner, or consignee, is entitled to 2 dollars per day for every day he is so detained.

Every pilot detained more than 48 hours by the ice, after he has conducted his vessel to a place of safety, is entitled to 2 dollars per day for every day he is so detained.

Every pilot compelled to perform quarantine is entitled to 2 dollars per day, for every day he is so detained, and cannot be discharged in less than 6 days, without his consent.

Every pilot obliged by the ice or stress of weather to proceed to another port, is, when there, entitled to his pilotage; and if there discharged, to 8 cents a mile for every mile he has to travel home.

Every pilot is required, under a penalty of 12 dollars, to make report, within 48 hours, at the warden's office, of every vessel he conducts to the city.

Rates of Commission recommended for general Adoption, and allowed by the Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce, when no Agreement subsists to the contrary, established at a stated Meeting on the 10th of March, 1823.

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PHOSPHORUS, a substance of a light amber colour, and semi-transparent; but, when carefully prepared, nearly colourless and transparent. When kept some time, it becomes opaque externally, and has then a great resemblance to white wax. It may be cut with a knife, or twisted to pieces with the fingers. It is insoluble in water; its specific gravity is 177. When exposed to the atmosphere, it emits a white smoke, and is luminous in the dark. When heated to 148° it takes fire, and burns with a very bright flame. When phosphorus is inflamed in oxygen, the light and heat are incomparably more intense; the former dazzling the eye, and the latter cracking the glass vessel. (Thomson's Chemistry.)

PIASTRES, OR DOLLARS, Spanish and American silver coins in very extensive circulation. Value, at an average, about 48. 2d. sterling.-(See COINS.)

PILCHARDS, fishes closely resembling the common herring, but smaller, and at the same time thicker and rounder. They are rarely found on the British shores, except on the coasts of Cornwall and Devon, particularly the former, where they are taken in great numbers from the middle of July to the end of November, or even the middle of December. It is a saying of the Cornish fishermen, that the pilchard is the least fish in size, most in number, and greatest for gain, taken from the

sea.

Pilchard fishery-This is carried on along the coasts of Cornwall and Devon, from the Bolt Head in the latter, round by the Land's End to Padstow and Bossiney in the former. Its principal seats are St. Ives, Mount's Bay, and Mevagissey. The fish usually make their appearance in vast shoals in the early part of July, and disappear about the middle of October; but they sometimes reappear in large quantities in November and December. They are taken either by seans or by drift nets, but principally, perhaps, by the former. A sean is a net, varying from 200 to 300 fathoms in length, and from 10 to 144 do. in depth, having cork buoys on one edge and lead weights on the other. Three boats are attached to each sean, viz. a boat (sean boat), of about 15 tons burden, for carrying the sean; another (follower), of about the same size, to assist in mooring it; and a smaller boat (turker), for general purposes. The number of hands employed in these 3 boats varies from about 13 to 18, but may be taken, at an average, at about 16. When the shoals of fish come so near the shore that the water is about the depth of the sean, it is employed to encircle them; the fishermen being directed to the proper places for casting or shooting the nets by persons (kuers) stationed for that purpose on the cliffs and in the boats. The practice is to row the boat with the sean on board gently round the shoal; and the sean being, at the same time, thrown gradually into the water, assumes, by means of its buoys and weights, a vertical position, its loaded edge being at the bottom, and the other floating on the surface. Its 2 ends are then fastened together; and, being brought into a convenient situation, it is moored by small anchors or grapnels; sometimes, however, one or two smaller seans are employed to assist in securing the fish. At low water, the enclosed fish are taken out by a tuck ne and carried to the shore. A single sean has been known to enclose at once as many as 4,200 hogs

* The tunny fish in the Archipelago was caught in a similar way:-" Ascendebat quidam (Anglicè huer, Græcè thunoscopos) in altum promontorium, unde thunnorum gregem specularetur, quo viso, signum piscatoribits dabat, qui retibus totum gregem includebant."- (Bishop of London's Notes on the Pers of Eschylus, quoted by Dr. Paris, in his Guide to Mount's Bay, p. 150.)

heads (1,200 tons) of fish! But this was the greatest quantity ever taken, and it is but seldom that as many as 1,200 hogsheads are caught at a time. The "take," in fact, depends on so many accidental circumstances, that while one sean may catch and cure in a season from 1,000 to 2,000 hogsheads, others in the neighbourhood may not get a single fish. In some places, the tides are so strong as to break the seans and set the fish at liberty. When the quantity enclosed is large, it requires several days to take them out, as they must not be removed in greater numbers than those who salt them can conveniently

manage.

Drift nets are usually about 4 mile in length by about 44 fathoms in depth; they are shot in the open sea, and entangle the fish in their meshes in the same way as the herring nets. The fish thus taken are said to be superior to those taken by the seans, though it be doubtful, from their being strangled in the nets, whether they are so good for curing.

As soon as the fish are brought on shore, they are carried to cellars or warehouses, where they are piled in large heaps, having a sufficient quantity of salt interspersed between the layers. Having remained in this state for about 35 days, they are, after being carefully washed and cleaned, packed in hogsheads, each containing, at an average, about 2,600 fish f; they are then subjected to a pressure sufficient to extract the oil, of which each hogshead yields, provided the fish be caught in summer, about 3 gallons; but those that are taken late in the season do not yield above half this quantity. This oil usually sells for from 12 to 15 per cent. under the price of brown seal oil. The broken and refuse fish and salt are sold to the farmers, and are used as manure with excellent effect. The skimmings which float on the water in which the pilchards are washed are called dregs, and are chiefly sold as grease for machinery.

The fresh fish in a hogshead of pilchards weigh about 6 cwt., and the salt about 34 cwt.; but the weight of the hogshead when cured and pressed is reduced to about 44 cwt.; including the weight of the cask, from 20 to 24 lbs. We subjoin

An Account of the Exports of Pilchards during each of the Ten Years ending with 1842; specifying the Places for which they were exported, the Quantity shipped for each, the Places at which they were taken and cured, and their Price at the Port of Shipment.

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N.B. Of the quantity sent to the Adriatic full 3-4ths have been sold in Venice, and the remainder chiefly in Ancona.

The export of pilchards has been rather declining of late years. This has been ascribed to various causes, such as the withdrawal of the bounty of 8s. 6d. a hogshead formerly paid on their export, the relaxed observance of Lent in the countries to which they are principally exported, and the imposition of a heavy duty on their importation into Naples. The falling off in the demand of the latter has, however, been in a great measure compensated by the increased demand at Venice.

Pilchards are not used in England, except in Cornwall and Devon, where about 3,000 hhds, a year may at present be made use of. We believe, however, that their consumption in these counties has begun to increase with considerable rapidity.

The sean fishery employs about 1,500 hands regularly throughout the season, and a vast number more when any considerable shoals are inclosed. There are at present (1843) about 260 scans afloat, of which no fewer than 186 belong to St. Ives. The first cost of a sean on the South coast is about 450%; but a St. Ives sean does not cost above 300. The drift fishery employs, during the season, from 900 to 1,000 men, and about 230 boats; the cost of each boat and nets amounting to about 2007. The labour in the cure of the fish may be taken at about 58. a hogshead. The total capital embarked in the fishery, in 1832, was estimated by those engaged in it at from 200,0007. to 250,0007., and it has not varied materially in the interval.

The drift fishermen employ themselves, when not engaged in the pilchard fishery, in the mackarel, herring, and hook-line fisheries. The sean fishermen consist principally of agricultural labourers, miners, &c., attracted to the business in the expectation (in which, however, they are not unfrequently disappointed) of making a comparatively large sum by a few weeks' exertion. But there are always 3 or 4 individuals of the crew of each sean who are regularly bred, expert fishermen.

Four fifths of the persons employed on shore in the salting, curing, packing, &c. of the fish, are

women.

The wages of those employed in the fishery are made sometimes to depend on the number of fish taken; but in other instances they are independent of any such contingency.

The fishery at St. Ives is carried on under a particular act of parliament, passed in 1841. The exaction of a tithe of the fish is a very serious burden on the fishery; sometimes it is taken in kind, but is more generally compounded for. (Dr. Paris's Guide to Mount's Bay and the Land's End, 2d ed, pp. 146— 150. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. p. 471.: but we are principally indebted to private information obtained from the most authentic sources, and obligingly communicated, by Mr. Coulson, of Penzance.)

PILOTS AND PILOTAGE. The name of pilot or steersman is applied either to a particular officer, serving on board a ship during the course of a voyage, and having the charge of the helm and the ship's route; or to a person taken on board at any particular place, for the purpose of conducting a ship through a river, road, or channel, or from or into a port.

It is to the latter description of persons that the term pilot is now usually applied; and pilots of this sort are established in various parts of the country by ancient charters of incorporation, or by particular statutes. The most important of these corporations are those of the Trinity House, Deptford Strond; the fellowship of the pilots of Dover,

↑ Mr. Pennant inadvertently states the number of fish in a hogshead at 35,900.-(British Zoology, iii. 344. ed. 1776.) Trusting to his authority, we fell into the same error in the 1st edition of this work.

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