betic writing was first carried to Greece by Phoenician adventurers: and it may be safely affirmed, that this was the greatest boon any people ever received at the hands of another. Before quitting this subject, we may briefly advert to the statement of Herodotus with respect to the circumnavigation of Africa by Phoenician sailors. The venerable father of history mentions, that a fleet fitted out by Necho king of Egypt, but manned and commanded by Phoenicians, took its departure from a port on the Red Sea, at an epoch which is believed to correspond with the year 604 before the Christian æra, and that, keeping always to the right, they doubled the southern promontory of Africa; and returned, after a voyage of 3 years, to Egypt, by the Pillars of Hercules.--( Herod. lib. iv. § 42.) Herodotus further mentions, that they related that, in sailing round Africa, they had the sun on their right hand, or to the north, -a circumstance which he frankly acknowledges seemed incredible to him, but which, as every one is now aware, must have been the case if the voyage was actually performed. Many learned and able writers, and particularly Gosselin (Recherches sur la Géographie Systématique et Positive des Anciens, tome i. pp. 204-217.), have treated this account as fabulous. But the objections of Gosselin have been succcessfully answered in an elaborate note by Larcher (Hérodote, tome iii. pp. 458-464. ed. 1802.; and Major Rennell has sufficiently demonstrated the practicability of the voyage (Geography of Herodotus, p. 682, &c.). Without entering upon this discussion, we may observe, that not one of those who question the authenticity of the account given by Herodotus, presumes to doubt that the Phoenicians braved the boisterous seas on the coasts of Spain, Gaul, and Britain; and that they had, partially at least, explored the Indian Ocean. But the ships and seamen that did this much, might, undoubtedly, under favourable circumstances, double the Cape of Good Hope. The relation of Herodotus has, besides, such an appearance of good faith; and the circumstance, which he doubts, of the navigators having the sun on the right, affords so strong a confirmation of its truth; that there really seems no reasonable ground for doubting that the Phoenicians preceded, by 2,000 years, Vasco de Gama in his perilous enterprise. Present State of Syria. - The principal modern ports on the coast of Syria are Alexandretta, Latakia, Tripoli, Beyrout, Seyde, and Acre. The commerce which they earry on is but inconsiderable. This, however, is not owing to the badness of the ports, the unsuitableness of the country, or to any natural cause, but wholly to long continued oppression and misgovernment. There is a passage in the dedication to Sandys' Travels, that describes the state of Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, &c. about two centuries ago, with a force and eloquence which it is not very likely will soon be surpassed : "Those countries, once so glorious and famous for their happy estate, are now, through vice and ingratitude, become the most deplored spectacles of extreme misery; the wild beasts of mankinde having broken in upon them and rooted out all civilitie, and the pride of a sterne and barbarous tyrant possessing the thrones of ancient and just dominion; who, ayming onely at the height of greatnesse and sensualitie, hath in tract of time reduced so great and goodly a part of the world, to that lamentable distresse and servitude under which (to the astonishment of the understanding beholders) it now faints and groneth. Those rich lands at this present remain waste and overgrowne with bushes, receptacles of wild beasts, of theeves and murderers; large territories dispeopled or thinly inhabited; goodly cities made desolate; sumptuous buildings become ruines; glorious temples either subverted, or prostituted to impietie; true religion discountenanced and oppressed; all nobilitie extinguished; no light of learning permitted, nor vertue cherished: violence and rapine insulting over all, and leaving no securitie save to an abject mind and unlookt on povertie." Those who compare this beautiful passage with the authentic statements of Volney -incomparably the best of the modern travellers who have visited the countries referred to will find that it continues to be as accurate as it is eloquent. U. V. VALONIA, a species of acorn, forming a very considerable article of export from the Morea and the Levant. The more substance there is in the husk, or cup of the acorn, the better. It is of a bright drab colour, which it preserves so long as it is kept dry any dampness injures it; as it then turns black, and loses both its strength and value. It is principally used by tanners, and is always in demand. Though a very bulky article, it is uniformly bought and sold by weight. A ship can only take a small proportion of her registered tonnage of valonia, so that its freight per ton is always high. Of 163,983 cwts. of valonia imported in 1840, 143,095 cwts. were brought from Turkey, 15,195 cwts. from Italy, and the residue from Greece and the Ionian islands. The entries for home consumption amounted, during the 3 years ending with 1842, to about 8,200 tons, or 164,000 cwt. a year. The duty was reduced in 1842 from 20s, to 5s, a ton. The price of valonia in the London market in 1843 varied from 187. to 221. a ton. VALPARAISO, the principal sea-port of Chili, lat. (Fort St. Antonio,) 33° 1′ 9′′ S., lon. 71° 41′ 5′′ W. Population perhaps 28,000 or 30,000. The water in the bay is deep, and it affords secure anchorage, except during northerly gales, to the violence of which it is exposed; but as the holding ground is good, and the pull of the anchor against a steep hill, accidents seldom occur to ships properly found in anchors and cables. There is no mole or jetty; but the water close to the shore is so deep, that it is customary for the smaller class of vessels to carry out an anchor to the northward, and to moor the ship with the stern ashore by another cable made fast to the shore. Large ships lie a little further off, and load and unload by means of lighters. The best shelter is in that part called the Fisherman's Bay, lying between the castle and fort St. Antonio, where, close to a clear shingle beach, there is 9 fathoms water. In the very worst weather, a landing may be effected in this part of the bay. (See Miers's Chili and La Plata, i. 440., where there is a plan of Valparaiso.) The harbours of Valdivia and Concepcion are much superior to that of Valparaíso; the former being, indeed, not only the best in Chili, but second to few in any part of the world. But Valparaiso, being near the capital, Santiago, and being the central dépôt for the resources of the province, is most fre quented. The town is conveniently situated, at the extremity of a mountainous ridge; most part of the houses being built either upon its acclivity or in its breaches. Large quantities of corn and other articles of provision are shipped here for Callao and San Francisco, but principally for the latter. The principal articles of export are the precious metals, copper in bars and ores, tallow and hides, wheat and flour, wool, saltpetre, sarsaparilla, &c. The productiveness of the Chilian mines of gold and silver has materially increased during the last few years, and their average produce may now be taken at about 3,500,000 doll. or 700,000. a year. But the increase in the production of copper has been the most extraordinary, as is evinced by the subjoined Account of the Quantities exported from Chili from 1841 to 1849, both inclusive. A large trade is beginning to grow up between Chili and California, the latter being indebted to the former for supplies of wheat, flour, and provisions. Account of the total Imports into, and of the total Exports from, Chili in 1849, specifying the Amount of the Trade with each Country. The exports of silver amounted in the above year to 3,223,633 doll., and those of gold to 263,070 doll. The exports from the U. Kingdom to Chili amounted, in 1849, to 1,089,9141. Among other items they comprised, cottons worth 545,846., woollens 194,714., linens 90.953, hardware and cutlery 38,1017, iron and steel 32,950., apparel and slops 13,916, coal 18,217., &c. Exclusive of gold and silver, we import from Chili considerable quantities of copper ore and copper, saltpetre, hides and tallow, wool, &c. We subjoin a late decree relating to foreign vessels: - "Art. 1. After the 1st of January, 1851, foreign vessels of those nations which have not adopted the terms of reciprocity established by the law of the 16th of July last, shall be charged oh their entrance to the ports of Chili, six reals, in addition to the two reals which they now pay, for each ton in measurement. "Art. 2. Merchandise imported after the date above named, in such vessels, shall pay an additional duty of ten per cent. on the amount of duties established, or which hereafter may be established. "Art. 3. For this additional charge, bills shall be signed at six months under competent security, which shall be cancelled (and in like manner the additional charge on tonnage, esta blished by article 1. shall be returned) from the day in which the equality of flags shall be put in practice by the nation to which the vessel belongs, as may be made to appear by the official notice given by the respective governments to that of Chili. "Art. 4. If the equality granted to Chilian vessels should only be in respect to certain kinds of merchandise, as, for instance, the products of the country, this reciprocity will not hold except in respect to merchandise of the same sort, that is, the product of the soil, or of the industry of the nation to which the vessel may belong in which it is imported; and only as respects these will the bill and security, of which the preceding article speaks, be cancelled." In 1847, 669 vessels of the agg. burden of 156,686 tons entered Valparaiso, 150 of these vessels belonging to England, and 45 to the U. States. But the commerce of the port has since been greatly extended; and owing to the extensive intercourse with California, the American arrivals begin to preponderate over those of every other country. In 1850, no fewer than 1,465 ships of the agg. burden of 412,240 tons arrived at the port, of which 422 of the agg. burden of 138,078 tons were American. The arrivals of English ships are not specified; but they were not so numerous. (Private Information.) Perhaps no part of S. America has profited more than Chili by the establishment of independence. The contrast between her present state and that in which she was found by M. de la Perouse is most striking." The influence of the government," said that accomplished navigator," is in constant or position to that of the climate. The system of prohibition exists at Chili in its fullest extent. This kingdom, of which the productions would, if increased to their maximum, supply all Europe; whose wool would be sufficient for the manufactures of France and England; and whose herds, converted into salt provisions, would produce a vast produce; this kingdom, alas! has no commerce. Four or five small vessels bring, every year, from Lima, tobacco, sugar, and some articles of European manufacture, which the miserable inhabitants can obtain only at second or third hand, after they have been charged with heavy customs duties at Cadiz, at Lima, and lastly, at their arrival at Chili; in exchange they give their tallow, hides, some deals, and their wheat, which, however, is at so low a price, that the cultivator has no inducement to extend his tillage. Thus Chili, with all its gold, and articles of exchange, can scarcely procure sugars, tobacco, snuffs, linens, cambrics, and hardware, necessary to the ordinary wants of life."—(Perouse's Voyage, vol. i. p. 50. Eng, ed.) Instead, however, of 4 or 5 small ships from Lima, we have already seen that Valparaiso only is now annually visited by between 1,400 and 1,500 ships of all nations, exclusive of those visiting the other ports! All sorts of European goods are carried direct to Chili, and are admitted at reasonable duties. The advantages resulting from this extensive intercourse with foreigners, and from the settlement of English and American adventurers in the country, have been already immense, and will every day become more visible. It was impossible, considering the ignorance of the mass of the people, that the old system of tyranny and superstition could be pulled to pieces without a good deal of violence and mischief; but the foundations of a better order of things have been laid; and there cannot be a doubt that Chili is destined to become an opulent and a flourishing country. Monies, Weights, and Measures of Chili are the same as those of Spain; for which, see CADIZ. The quintal of 4 arrobas, or 100 lbs.,=101-44 lbs. avoirdupois. The fanega, or principal corn measure, contains 3,439 English cubic inches, and is therefore 1599 Winch. bushels. Hence 5 fanegas = 1 Winch. quarter very nearly. The yara, or measure of length,=33-384 Eng. inches. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, OR TASMANIA, a large island belonging to Great Britain, forming part of Australia, lying between 41° 20′ and 43° 30′ S. lat., and 144° 40′ and 1480 20 W. lon. It is supposed to contain about 27,000 square miles. - (See the Mercator's Chart prefixed to this work.) This land was discovered by the Dutch navigator Tasman, in 1642, and was named in honour of Anthony Van Diemen, at that time governor-general of the Dutch posses. sions in the East Indies; but it is now frequently called Tasmania, from its discoverer. Previously to 1798, it was supposed to form part of New Holland, but it was then ascertained to be an island. It was taken possession of by the British in 1803; and in 1804 Hobart Town, the capital, was founded. The surface is generally hilly and mountainous; but, though none of the land be of the first quality, there are several moderately fertile plains, and a good deal of the hilly ground is susceptible of being cultivated. On the whole, however, it is not supposed that more than about a third part of the entire surface of the island can be considered arable: but about a third more may be advantageously used as sheep pasture. As compared with New Holland, it is well watered. The climate, though variable, is, generally speaking, good, and suitable for European constitutions; and it is not exposed to the tremendous droughts that occasion so much mischief in New South Wales. Wheat is raised in considerable quantities; though wool is at present the staple produce of the colony. Van Diemen's Land, like New South Wales, was originally intended to serve as a penal colony, and convicts are still sent to it. Latterly, however, it has received a very considerable number of free settlers. In 1847, the total population of the island, exclusive of aborigines, (who perhaps do not exceed 3,000 or 4,000), amounted to 70,104, of whom 45,916 were free, and 24,188 convicts. The prosperity of the colony was formerly a good deal retarded by the enormities committed by a banditti of runaway convicts, known by the name of bush-rangers; and more recently by the hostilities of the natives. Vigorous measures were, however, adopted for the suppression of such outrages, by confining the natives within a limited district; and these, we are glad to say, appear to have been effectual for their object. Hobart Town or Hobarton, as it is now usually termed, is situated in the southern part of the island, on the west side of the river Derwent, near its junction with Storm Bay, lat. (Fort Mulgrave) 42° 53′ 5′′ S., lon. 147° 21' 5" E. The water is deep, and the anchorage good. A jetty has been constructed, accessible to the largest ships. The situation appears to have been very well chosen; and the town has been judiciously laid out. In 1848, the district of Hobarton contained 21,467 inhabitants, of whom 5,265 were convicts. The houses are supposed to be worth, at an average, 50l. a year. There are several printing establishments in the town, and various newspapers, some of them very well conducted. There is also a Book Society, a Mechanics' Institute, and several respectable schools and academies. The Van Diemen's Land Banking Company, the Australasian Bank, the Union Bank, the Commercial Bank, &c. have offices in Hobarton. They are joint stock companies. A light-house, with a fixed light 70 ft. in height, has been erected on Cape Direction, on a small island about 6 m. S. from Hobarton. Launceston, the second town in the island, is situated in the northern part, at the head of the navigable river Tamar, which falls into Port Dalrymple. Its population may amount to about 10,000. It has a considerable trade with Sydney and Hobarton, and with England. Trade of Van Diemen's Land. - Hardware, haberdashery, apparel, cotton and linen goods, woollens, malt liquor, spirits, wine, &c. form the principal articles of import. Here, as in New South Wales, wool forms by far the most important article of export; next to it is whale oil, and then follows wheat and flour, live stock, timber, whalebone, mimosa bark, and various less important articles. The usual excess of the imports over the exports is accounted for by the remittances to defray the cost of the convict establishment. Population, Trade, &c. of Van Diemen's Land from 1839 to 1848, both inclusive. In 1848 about 171,500 acres were said to be under crop, including about 64,700 in wheat, 14,042 in barley, 29 463 in oats, 3,916 in potatoes, 8,836 in turnips, and 49,000 or upwards in grasses. The returns of the produce for the same year are also given, and, provided they may be depended upon, they show that the yield of wheat is 17 bush. to the acre, of barley 23 do., and of oats 25 do., being not much more than half the produce of the same crops in England. This deficiency of produce may be ascribed partly, we believe, to the backward state of agriculture, and the want of care in the preparing of the fand, and partly to the inferior fertility of the latter. In fact, Van Diemen's Land, though superior as a corn-growing country to New S. Wales, is notwithstanding better fitted for grazing than cropping. Wool, indeed, is here, as well as in Australia, the staple produce of the colony; and the increase in the breed of sheep has been so very great that the stock, which, in 1828, amounted to 553,698 head, had, in 1848, increased to 1.800,000 head. And while the imports of wool from Van Diemen's Land into the U. Kingdom, in 1820, did not exceed 993,979 lbs., they amounted, in 1849, to 4,999,043 lbs. Maize is not raised in the colony, the climate being too cold. Apples, currants, gooseberries, &c., attain perfection, but the orange, citron, and pomegranate are not raised, and the grape and peach attain only an inferior degree of maturity. In 1848, the stock of cattle was estimated at 85,000 head; of horses, at 17,196; and goats, at 2,900. All kinds of stock attain a much greater size than in the neighbourhood of Sydney. During the half dozen years previous to 1836, there was a great deal of over-trading in the colony, the revulsion consequent on which was productive of a great deal of suffering. But the continued importation of convicts has been the great drawback on the colony; and, besides preventing the influx of free settlers, has filled the island with vice and crime. And supposing the future importation of convicts to be prevented, it will require a lengthened period to efface the deep taint it has already impressed on the population. In 1848, 209 vessels of the aggregate burden of 18,412 tons, belonged to Van Diemen's Land: of these 29, of about 6,000 tons burden, employed in the whale fishery, imported oil, &c., to the gross value of 104,000. We subjoin an Account of the Import and Export Trade of the Colony in 1848. The subjoined Table gives the Arrivals and Departures of Vessels from Hobart Town during the same Period. 95,988 The number of men employed in the vessels which arrived was 7,287, and of those employed on board the ships which left the port, 7,901. Hobarton has now some trade with San Francisco. CUSTOM-HOUSE REGULATIONS, RATES OF PILOTAGE, HARBOUR DUES, ETC. £ s. d. (Hours for public business from 10 to 3 daily, excepting on Saturdays, from 10 to 12.) Duties. On brandy, per gallon 0 10 0 0 10 0 On rum, per gallon, the produce of the West . 0 7 6 chandise On British grin, per gallon 1 10 0 Entry of any foreign vessel On tobacco, per ib. Permission to trade 0 - 010 - 0 26 On landing salt, per ton 1379 week, at 1 o clock, on which days the duties must be paid Rates of Pilotage at the Derwent. £. d. - 01 0 10 feet and under 010 11 ditto 0 0 6 12 ditto 13 ditto 14 ditto 16 ditto 17 ditt On landing each cask or package of spirits or wine On indorsing change of master -200 Warehouse Rent and Charges. A government order pub lished the 7th of February, 1826, fixes the following rents on spirits and tobacco, in the king's bonded stores, viz. 1st. All spirituous liquors, 1s. 3d. per ton of 252 gallons, for every week, or any period less than a week, during which the same shall be deposited. zdiy. Tobacco, 6d. per ton for every week, or any period less than a week, during which the same shall be deposited. 3dly. The amount of all such wareho rent, in respect of any cask or package required to be delivered, must be paid before the same can be so delivered. 4thly. No allowance whatsoever will at any time be made, in respect of, nor will the government be answerable for, any loss by fire, leakage, robbery, or casualty of any kind. Government Order, 28th of February, 1823.-Representations having been made to the lieutenant governor, of the inconvenience and delay attending the stowing and unstowing of goods in the bonded warehouses, a king of men has been appointed to be employed under the storekeener for this par pose exclusively, and the following scale of charges will be required to be paid: For Spirits. Per pipe, pipe, or puncheon, each stowing d., unstowing 18. bd. Per pipe, hogshead, or barrel, stowing 6d., unstowing 2. Per case containing 3 or more dozen bottles, stowing 3d., unstowing 4d. Per case containing a less quantity than 3 dozen, stowing 2d., unstowing 3d. For Tobacco. - In large serons, each, stowing 6d., unstowing 94. In cases, each, stowing 3d., unstowing 4d. In baskets, rolls, or small scrons, stowing 1d., unstow. ing id. In consequence of this arrangement, it is to be understood that no labourers are to be admitted into or employed at the bonded warehouse, except the storekeeper's gang. Goods intended to be warehoused under bond must be landed before 12 o'clock. Hours of attendance at the Custom-house quay, from 8 o'clock till 4 from the 1st of September to the 30th of April, and from 9 till 4 from the 1st of May till the 31st of August. The appointed days for opening the bonded warehouse for the delivery of goods are Mondays and Thursdays in every 18 ditto 19 ditto 20 ditto Into. £ s. d. Out. £. 8. If the pilot does not board the vessel outside the middle ground at the Heads at George Town, or, the weather not permitting his going outside, if he he not ready to show the channel by keeping his boat in the fair way until the ship can be boarded, he shall forfeit half the pilotage inwards. For every number of inches below 6, no charge is to be made; for a foot and upwards, 1 foot is to be charged. Colonial vessels are exempted from the payment of pilotage, unless the master shall make the signal for a pilot and accept his service. These details have been principally derived from the Statistics of the Colony, published at Hobart Town in 1843; and partly from Lieut. Breton's book, and different Parliamentary Papers. VANILLA, the fruit of the Epidendrum Vanilla, a species of vine extensively cultivated in Mexico. It has a trailing stem, not unlike the common ivy, but not so woody, which attaches itself to any tree that grows near it. The Indians propagate it by planting cuttings at the foot of trees selected for that purpose. It rises to the height of 18 or 20 feet; the flowers are of a greenish yellow colour, mixed with white; the fruit is about 8 or 10 inches long, of a yellow colour when gathered, but dark brown or black when imported into Europe; it is wrinkled on the outside, and full of a vast number of seeds like grains of sand, having, when properly prepared, a peculiar and delicious fragrance. It is principally used for mixing with and perfuming chocolate; and is, on that account, largely imported into Spain; but as chocolate, owing to oppressive duties, is little used in England, vanilla is not much known in this country. Vanilla is principally gathered in the intendancy of Vera Cruz, in Mexico, at Misantla, Colipa, Vacuatla, and other places. It is collected by the Indians, who sell it to the whites (gente de razon), who prepare it for market. They spread it to dry in the sun for some hours, then wrap it in woollen cloths to sweat. Like pepper, it changes its colour in this operation - becoming almost black. It is finally dried by exposing it to the sun for a day. There are four varieties of vanilla, all differing in price and excellence; viz. the vanilla fina, the zacate, the rezacate, and the vasura. The best comes from the forests surrounding the village of Zentila, in the intendancy of Oaxaca. According to Humboldt, the mean exportation of vanilla from Vera Cruz may amount to from 900 to 1,000 millares, worth at Vera Cruz from 30,000 to 40,000 dollars. Vanilla is also imported from Brazil, but it is very inferior. The finest Mexican vanilla is extremely high priced. All sorts are subjected in this country to a duty of 5s. per lb. - (See Humboldt, Nouvelle Espagne, 2d edit. tome iii. pp. 37. 46.; Poinsett's Notes on Mexico, p. 194. &c.) VELLUM, a species of fine parchment. (See PARCHMENT.) VENICE, a famous city of Austrian Italy, formerly the capital of the republic of that name, on a cluster of small islands towards the northern extremity of the Adriatic, in lat. 45° 25′ 53′′ N., lon. 12° 20′ 31′′ E. Population about 100,000. The commerce of Venice, once the most extensive of any European city, is now comparatively trifling; and the population is gradually diminishing both in numbers and wealth |