the streets are uneven: they are also, for the most part, narrow; but they are either well paved or Macadamised. The greater number of the houses are built of stone, with shingle roofs. Some of the public buildings are elegant, and well adapted for their purposes. The harbour, or basin, lies between the town and the island of Orleans. It is safe and commodious: the water is about 28 fathoms deep, with a tide rising from 17 to 18 feet; and at springs from 23 to 25 ditto. Quebec was founded by the French in 1608. In 1629, it was taken by the English; but was restored in 1632. It was again taken by the English under General Wolfe, who fell in the engagement, in 1759; and was finally ceded to us by the treaty of Paris in 1763.

The rapid increase of population in, and of emigration to, Upper Canada has occasioned a proportional increase of intercourse between Quebec and Montreal, and the Canadian ports on Lakes Ontario, Erie, &c. The first steam-boat that plied on the St. Lawrence was launched in 1812; but there are now a great many steamers, some of them of large burden, employed in the conveyance of goods and passengers between Quebec and Montreal; and in the trade between Quebec and Halifax in Nova Scotia. And by means of the Rideau and Welland canals, an uninterrupted line of steam communication is formed between the Atlantic and Amherstburgh, one of the remote settlements of Upper Canada, a distance of more than 1,500 miles; which is now extended through lake Huron to the western extremity of lake Superior, about 700 miles beyond Amherstburgh; giving to Quebec a command of internal navigation inferior only to that of New Orleans, The navigation at Quebec closes at the end of November or beginning of December, and opens in April. Below Quebec the river is seldom frozen over; but the masses of floating ice, kept in constant agitation by the flux and reflux of the tide, render navigation impracticable. The waters of the St. Lawrence are very pure; and in point of depth and magnitude it is one of the noblest rivers in the world. — (Bouchette's British Dominions in America, vol. i. p. 272.) Quebec is a free warehousing port.

The trade of Quebec is very extensive. It engrosses, with Montreal, almost the entire trade of the province with the mother country, the W. Indies, &c. Great numbers of emigrants leave this country for Canada; but the larger number subsequently reemigrate to the U. States. It has a regular intercourse, by means of steamers, with Montreal, and other ports higher up the St. Lawrence, and with Halifax, and other ports on the Atlantic. Still, however, it must not be forgotten that in so far as the United Kingdom is concerned, the trade with Canada and Quebec is, in some degree, forced and factitious, and has not been a source of profit, but the reverse. In former years it was, in fact, mainly a consequence of the discriminating duties laid in our ports on timber from the N. of Europe; and but for this preposterous arrangement, the trade between Great Britain and Quebec would have been extremely unimportant. Now, however, some branches of the trade appear to have acquired a solid footing; and notwithstanding the reduction of the discriminating duties in favour of Baltic timber, the imports from Canada and other parts of British America of red-pine, and of pine and spruce planks, especially the latter, have of late very largely increased. Excepting timber, furs and ashes are the most important articles sent from Canada. A considerable part of the corn and flour exported from Quebec is the growth of the U. States. The principal articles of import into Canada consist of corn, cottons, woollens, silk, and other manufactured goods; glass ware, spirits and wines, iron and hardware, sugar and tea, &c. The total value of the imports into Canada (of which, however, by far the largest portion goes to Montreal) in 1848 amounted to 2,107,1641. currency (24s. 4d. cur. =20s. ster.). Declared value of British produce and manufactures exported to Canada in 1849, 1,324,9317.

It is material, however, to bear in mind, that little more than half the imports are paid for by the exports; they are, in fact, principally paid for by the treasury at home, and are to be regarded as the means sent out by England to pay the troops and meet the other heavy expenses she has to incur in the preservation of this unprofitable colony.

Account of the Number of Vessels and their Tonnage, which arrived at the Port of Quebec, including those bound for Montreal, from Sea, and the Number of Passengers that came by them, from 1846 to 1850, inclusive.

Of the vessels that arrived at Quebec în 1850, 96 were foreign, viz., 45 Norwegian, 24 American (U. S.), 19 Prussian, 3 Russian, 2 Portuguese, 1 Hanoverian, 1 Swedish, and 1 Dutch.

During the year, 1,054 vessels cleared at the port of Quebec; they were almost exclusively employed in the export of timber, and were nearly all of large tonnage.

Account of the Cargoes of Timber, Deals, &c., imported into the U. Kingdom from British America and the Baltic, during each of the Twelve Years ending 1st February, 1851.

Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles imported into the United Kingdom from the British North American Colonies in 1848.

11

9

1 2,860,357 2,107,264 0

1

8

Statement showing the Coins chiefly in use in the British North American Colonies, with their Values in the respective Colonies, in Halifax Currency (Fractions omitted).

Paper Currency. There is no established government bank in the province; but there are several private chartered banks, of which the Quebec Bank is the principal. We subjoin a statement of the

Total -748,338 381,273 152,929 1,282,540 259,789

The prices of shares, in March, 1850, were as follows, viz.
-Montreal Bank, 3 per cent. prem.; Commercial Bank, 3
per cent, dis; City Bank, 30 per cent. dis.; Bank of British
North America, 17 per cent. dis.

Accounts kept in Halifax currency
Weights same as in England.

Measures. - Standard wine gallon, liquid measure of the province. The Canada minot for all grain, &c. except where speciuly agreed upon to the contrary; and this measure is about 1-8th larger than the Winchester bushel. The English Winchester bushel, when specially agreed for. The Paris foot, for all measures of lands granted previous to the conquest, and all measures of length, except an agreement is made to the contrary. The English foot, for measure of lands granted since the conquest, and wherever specially agreed upon. The standard English yard for measuring all cloths or stuffs, sold by the yard or measure of length. The English ell, when specially greed upon.

Rates of Pilotage for the River St. Lawrence.

From Bic to Quebec (153 miles distance) —
From the 2d to the 10th April, inclusive -
From the 1st May to the 10th Nov., inclusive
From the 11th to the 18th November, inclusive -
From the 19th Nov. to the 1st March, inclusive -
From Quebec to Bic-

Per Foot.
£4.

- 1 0 0
0 18 0
1 3

0

From the 2d to the 30th April, inclusive -
From the 1st May to the 10th November, inclusive 0 15 9
From the 11th to the 18th November, inclusive 109
From the 19th Nov. to the 1st March, inclusive 159
Rates of pilot water and poundage on pilot money are pay-
able at the Naval Office, by masters and commanders of vessels,

Viz.

For every foot of water for which masters or commanders of vessels are bound to pay their pilots, from Bic to Quebec, and from Quebec to Bic, 2s. 6d. currency per foot --

For vessels going to Three Rivers or Montreal,
Of 100 to 150 tons, inclusive
Of 151 to 200 tons, inclusive
Of 201 to 250 tons, inclusive
Of 251 tons and upwards

2 currency. 3

On settling with pilots, masters or commanders of vessels, or the consignees of such vessels, are to deduct 18. in the pound for the amount of the sums to be paid for pilotage, which will be exacted by the naval officer at clearing out; the same being funded by law, under the direction of the Trinity House, for the relief of decayed pilots, their widows and children.

Regulations for the Payment of Pilotage above Bic to Quebec. At or above the anchorage of the Brandy Pots, 2-3ds of the present rate for a full pilotage.

Above the point of St. Roc, 1-3d do.

Above the Point aux Pins, on the Ile aux Grues, and below Patrick's Hole, 1-4th do.

For shifting a vessel from one wharf to another, be-
tween Bréhaut's wharf and Point à Carcis; or from
or to the stream, from or to any of the above wharfs 0 11 8
For shifting a vessel from the stream, or from either
of the above wharfs to St. Patrick's Hole, or to
the basin of Montmorency, or to the ballast-
ground, the basin of the Chaudière, Wolfe's Cove,
and as far as the River Cap Rouge -

Rates above the Harbour of Quebec.
For vessels of regis:

From Quebec to
Port Seuf,
currency.

tered measurement
not exceeding 200

tons

Account of the Declared Values of the principal Articles of British Produce and Manufacture exported to the British North American Colonies during 1848.

MONTREAL, the second town of Canada, is situated on the south side of an island of the same name, in the St. Lawrence, about 180 miles above Quebec, in lat. 45° 31' N., lon. 73° 35′ W. Population, in 1842, 40,203, being very considerably greater than that of Quebec, or of any other town in British America. The harbour is not large, but it is safe and commodious; the facilities for navigation afforded by the noble river on which it is situated being such, that vessels of 600 tons burden may ascend thus far without difficulty. The North American fur trade principally centres in Montreal; which also enjoys the principal share of the commerce between Canada and the U. States. It is increasing faster than Quebec, or than any city in British America. Imports and exports included in those of Quebec.

QUERCITRON BARK, the bark of a species of oak growing in many parts of North America. It is used in dyeing yellow colours. (See BARK.) QUILLS (Fr. Plumes à écrire; Ger. Posen, Feder kiel; It. Penne de scrivere; Rus. Stivoli; Sp. Canones para escribir), the hard and strong feather of the wings of geese,

ostriches, swans, turkeys, crows, &c. used in writing. They are classified according to the order in which they are fixed in the wing; the second and third quills being the best. Crow quills are chiefly used for drawing. The goodness of quills is judged partly by the size of the barrels, but more by the weight; hence the denomination of quills of 14, 15, &c. loths per mille, each mille consisting of 1,200 quills. The duty on goose quills, which was then 2s. 6d. per 1,000, produced, in 1840, 2,7537., showing that 22,024,000 quills had been entered for home consumption in that year. In 1842, the duty was reduced to 6d. per 1,000. Quills are principally imported from Riga and other ports on the Baltic; but those imported by the Hudson's Bay Company and sold at their sales are superior to all others. We subjoin an

Account of the Prices of the various Descriptions of Quills in the London Markets in January, 1844. £ i. d. £ s. d.

Undressed goose quills,imported
from the Baltic and assorted
into loths -
Swan quills, imported from the
Baltic and assorted in loths
Goose quills, mixed, imported
by the Hudson's Bay Company

- 0 6 0 to 3 10 0 per mille.

050-100 per 100.

£ 5.
and sold at their annual sale-0 10
Mixed swan quills, by the same 3 0
Irish goose quills, mixed
English, ditio

Turkey quills, ditto
English crow, ditto
English duck, ditto

-0 0 - 0 5

d. £ s. d.
0 to 5 0 0 per mille.
0-800
6-0 10 per lb.
0-0 12 0 per mille.

7 0

.0 2

-04 0-0 7

R.

RAGS (Du. Lompen, Vodden; Fr. Chiffes, Chiffons, Drapeaux, Drilles; Ger. Lumpen; It. Strasci, Strazze; Rus. Trepje; Sp. Tropos, Harapos), shreds or fragments of worn linen, woollen, or cotton cloth. Though commonly held in little estimation, rags are of great importance in the arts, being used for various purposes, but especially in the manufacture of paper, most of which is entirely prepared from them. As the mode in which British rags are collected must be well known to every one, the following statements apply only to the trade in foreign rags.

Woollen Rags.-Woollen and linen rags are imported in considerable quantities from the continent of Europe, and from Sicily. The woollen rags are chiefly used for manure, especially in the culture of hops; but rags of loose texture, and not too much worn or decayed, are unravelled and mixed up with fresh wool in the making of yarn; a practice more favourable to the cheapness than to the strength and durability of the fabrics into which this old wool is introduced. Woollen rags are also used for making flocks or stuffing for beds, &c. : this process is performed chiefly by the aid of the same kind of engines that prepare pulp for paper; these wash the rags thoroughly, at the same time that they grind and tear them out into separate threads and fibres. The chief importation of woollen rags is from Hamburg and Bremen; and there are some got from Rostock, but the quantity is trifling. The total average importation may be taken at 1,100 tons, and the price ranges from 51. to 61. per ton, duty (6d.) and freight paid on such as are used for manure; and from 10l. to 131. for coloured woollens of loose texture, and 151. to 181. for white of the same description.

Linen Rags are principally imported from Rostock, Bremen, Hamburg, Leghorn, Ancona, Messina, Palermo, and Trieste. Their export from Holland, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, is strictly prohibited. The imports usually amount to about 10,000 tons; worth, at an average, from 20l. to 214 per ton, duty (6d.) and freight included. Exclusive of the very large quantity collected at home, all the rags imported were, until very recently, employed in the manufacture of paper; but the Americans, who have for some years been large importers from the Mediterranean and Hamburg, occasionally come into the London market, and purchase large quantities: a circumstance sufficiently indicative of the languid state of the paper manufacture in this country. (See PAPER.)

The imported rags are coarser and inferior in appearance to the English; but, being almost exclusively linen, they are stronger, and bear a price disproportioned to the apparent difference in quality: this disproportion has been materially augmented since the introduction of the process of boiling the rags in ley, and afterwards bleaching them with chlorine, has rendered foreign rags fit for making fine paper, and indeed, in some respects, preferable for that purpose, by their affording greater strength of texture combined with equal whiteness of colour.

There is considerable variety in the appearance of rags from different ports; but, in general, those from the north of Europe are darker and stronger than those from the Mediterranean ports. The latter are chiefly the remains of outer garments, and have become whitened by exposure to the sun and air; but since the improvements in bleaching, this does not enhance their value in the British market. The rags shipped from Trieste are chiefly collected in Hungary. It is only within these few years that we have brought rags from this port, which now furnishes us with considerable supplies. Most part of the rags collected in the Tuscan states, to the extent of 10,000 or 12,000 bags a year, goes to America.

Freights are, at an average, about - Hamburg and Bremen, linen 15s. per ton, woollen, 20s.; Rostock, 30s.; Ancona and Leghorn, 25s. to 358.; Trieste and Sicily, 258. to 35s. Linen rags are almost all selected and assorted previously to their shipment from the foreign port. Their distinguishing marks and prices per cwt. in the London market, January, 1844, were as follows: viz.

RAIL-ROAD, TRAM OR WAGGON ROAD, a species of road having tracks or ways formed of iron, stone, or other solid material, on which the wheels of the carriages passing along it run. The object in constructing such roads is, by diminishing the friction, to make a less amount of power adequate either to impel a carriage with a greater velocity, or to urge forward a greater load.

Construction of Rail-roads. The friction on a perfectly level rail-road, properly constructed, is estimated to amount to from th to 4th only of the friction on an ordinary level road; so that, supposing the same force to be applied in both cases, it would move a weight from 10 to 7 times as great on the former as on the latter. But if there be a very moderate ascent, such as 1 foot in 50, which in an ordinary road would hardly be perceived, a great increase of power on the rail-road is required to overcome the resistance that is thus occasioned. The reason is, that the ordinary load on a level rail-road is about seven times as great as on a common turnpike road; so that when the force of gravity is brought into operation by an ascending plane, its opposing power, being proportioned to the load, is 7 times as great as on a common road. Hence the vast importance of having rail-roads either level or as nearly so as possible.

It is also of great importance that rail-roads should be straight, or, at least, free from any abrupt curves. Carriages being kept on the road by flanges on the wheels, it is obvious, that where the curves are quick, the friction on the sides of the rails, and consequent retardation, must be very great. In the Manchester and Liverpool rail-road, the curves form segments of a circle which, if extended, would embrace a circumference of 15 miles.

Iron rail-roads, the kind now generally used, are of 2 descriptions. The flat rail, or tram road, consists of cast-iron plates about 3 feet long, 4 inches broad, and inch or 1 inch thick, with a flaunch, or turned up edge, on the inside, to guide the wheels of the carriage. The plates rest at each end on sleepers of stone or wood, sunk into the earth, and they are joined to each other so as to form a continuous horizontal pathway. They are, of course, double; and the distance between the opposite rails is from 3 to 44 feet, according to the breadth of the carriage or waggon to be employed. The edge rail, which is found to be superior to the tram rail, is made either of wrought or cast iron; if the latter be used, the rails are about 3 feet long, 3 or 4 inches broad, and from 1 to 2 inches thick, being joined at the ends by cast metal sockets attached to the sleepers. The upper edge of the rail is generally made with a convex surface, to which the wheel of the carriage is attached by a groove made somewhat wider. When wrought iron is used, which is in many respects preferable, the bars are made of a smaller size, of a wedge shape, and from 12 to 18 feet long; but they are supported by sleepers, at the distance of every 3 feet. In the Liverpool railroad the bars are 15 feet long, and weigh 35 lbs. per lineal yard. The waggons in common use run upon 4 wheels of from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Rail-roads are either made double, 1 for going and

1 for returning; or they are made with slidings, where the carriages may pass each other. (See the able and original Essays on Rail-roads, by Charles Maclaren, Esq, in the Scotsman for 1824; see also Mr. Booth's Pamphlet on the Liverpool and Man chester Rail-road; the articles on Railways, in the Encyc. Britannica, the Penny Cyclopadia, &c.)

Speed of Carriages on Rail-roads, &c.— The effect of rail-roads in diminishing friction is familiar to every one; and they have long been used in various places of this and other countries, particularly in the vicinity of mines, for facilitating the transport of heavy loads. But it is only since the application of locomotive engines as a moving power, that they began powerfully to attract the public attention, and that their value has been fully appreciated. These engines were first brought into use on the Darlington and Stockton rail-road, opened on the 27th of December, 1825; but it was not till the opening of the rail-way between Manchester and Liverpool that the vast importance of this novel means of intercourse was fully perceived. This splendid work, though now far surpassed in magnitude by other rail-roads, cost nearly a million sterling. It has the advantage of being nearly level; for, with the exception of a short distance at Rainhill, where it is inclined at the rate of 1 foot in 96, there is no greater inclination than in the ratio of 1 foot in 880. The length of the railway is about 31 miles; and it was usual