with full advantage to herself. The king has in all cases the right to release any prize previously to Its condemnation; this being an implied exception in the grant of prizes by the Crown.--(Chitty on Commercial Law, vol. i. c. 8.) In some privateering adventures, the crew are engaged on the terms of no prize no pay; and, in such cases, the produce of whatsoever prizes may be taken goes half to the ship (for the owners), and half to the men, divided among them according to the articles of agreement; but when the men sail for wages, the captures belong entirely to the owners, except a small share, which is commonly stipulated to be given to the crew, over and above their wages, in order to stimulate their enterprise. Both ways of arming are regulated by the articles entered into between the owners and crews. Privateers are forbidden from doing any thing contrary to the law of nations, as to assault an enemy in a port or haven, under the protection of any price or republic, be he friend, ally, or neutral; for the peace of such place must be preserved inviolable. -(Molloy, De Jure Maritimo, book i. c. 3.) When letters of marque are granted, it is usual, in most countries, to exact security that the regulations with respect to the conduct of privateers shall be observed. In Great Britain, a bond for 1,5001. must be given by responsible persons, not concerned in the ship, for all ships carrying less than 150 men, and 3,0001. for every ship carrying more, that they will give full satisfaction for any damage or injury they may commit at sea, contrary to the regulations under which they are to act, and to their duty as privateers. If privateers wilfully commit any spoil, depredation, or other injury, on friendly or neutral ships, or on the ships or goods of their fellow subjects, they are to be punished, according to the crime, either with death, or otherwise; and the vessels are subject to forfeiture. Whether a ship taken be lawful prize, or not, shall be tried in the admiralty; and no ship or cargo, or part of a ship or part of a cargo, is to be sold, or disposed of in any way, till after judgment has been obtained. If 2 ships with letters of marque accidentally meet with a prize at sea, though only one attack and take her, yet the other, being in sight, shall have an equal share of the prize, though he afforded no assistance in the capture; because his presence may be presumed to have struck terror into the enemy, and made him yield; which perhaps he would not have done, had his conqueror been single: so that all ships that are in sight, though they cannot come up to assist in the engagement, are entitled by the common law to a distribution of the spoil. (Beawes, Lex Mercatoria, art. Privateers.) If those to whom letters of marque are granted, should, instead of taking the ship and goods appertaining to that nation against which the said letters are awarded, wilfully take or spoil the goods of another nation in amity with us, this would amount to piracy; and the person so offending would, for such fault, forfeit their vessel, and the penalties in which their securities are, according to custom, bound on taking out such letters. But such penalties would not follow, unless the capture were made in a piratical manner. For if the circumstances incident to the captured vessel were such as to afford a strong presumption that she really belonged to the country against which the letters were granted, the captors would not be liable to punishment, though they might be to damages. "It being impossible," says Beawes," always to determine an affair of this sort at sea, it is allowable to bring a dubious capture into port, in order to more nice and just scrutiny and inspection; otherwise the goods of an enemy would often escape. However, to guard against unlawful seizures, the government have wisely directed sufficient caution to be given (as before mentioned) for the due observance of the letters according to law, before they permit their issuing; and when there is a breach committed, the penalties are inflicted." (Lex Mercatoria, art. Privateers.) 3. Regulations for the Government of Privateers, &c. The following instructions to privateers were issued under an order in council, at the commencement of the last war with France, 16th of May, 1803 : Art. 1. Against what, and where, Letters of Marque may act hostilely. It shall be lawful for the conimanders of ships authorised by letters of marque and reprisals for private menof-war, to set upon by force of arms, and subdue and take the men of war, ships and vessels, goods, wares, and merchandises, belonging to the French republic, or to any person being subjects to the French republic, or inhabitants within any of the territories of the French republic; but so that no hostility he committed, nor prize attacked, seized, or taken within the harbours of princes or states in amity with us, or in their rivers or ads, within the shot of their cannon, unless by permission of such princes or states, or their commanders or governors in chief of such places. Art. 11. Captures to be brought into Port. -The commanders of the ships and vessels so authorised as aforesaid, shall bring all ships, vessels, and goods, which they shall seize and take, into such port of England, or some other port of our dominions, as shall be most convenient for them, in order to have the same legally adjudged by our High Court of Admiralty of England, or before the judge of any other admiralty court, lawfully authorised, within our dominions. Art. III. Conduct of the Captors after the Capture is brought into Port. After such ships, vessels, and goods shall be taken and brought into any port, the taker, or one of his chief officers, or some other person present at the capture, shall be obliged to bring or send, as soon as possibly may be, 3 or 4 of the principal of the company (whereof the master, supercargo, inate, or boatswain, to be always 2) of every ship or vessel so brought into port, before the judge of our High Court of Admiralty of England, or his surrogate, or before the judge of such other admiralty court as within our dominions, law fully authorised aforesaid, or such as shall be lawfully commissioned in that behalf, to be sworn and examined upon such interrogatories as shall tend to the discovery of the truth, concerning the interest or property of such ship or ships, vessel or vessels, and of the goods, merchandises, and other effects found therein; and the taker shall be further obliged, at the time he produceth the company to be examined, and before any monition shall be issued, to bring in and deliver into the hands of the judge of the High Court of Admiraltyof England, his surrogate, or the judge of such other admiralty court within our dominions, lawfully authorised, or others commissioned as afore. said, all such papers, passes, sea-briefs, charterparties, bills of lading, cockets, letters, and other documents and writings, as shall be delivered up or found on board any ship: the taker, or one of his chief officers, or some other person who shall be present at the capture, and saw the said papers and writings delivered up, or otherwise found on board at the time of the capture, making oath that the said papers and writings are brought and delivered in as they were received and raken, without any fraud, addition, subduction, or embezzlement whatever, or otherwise to account for the same upon oath to the satisfaction of the court. Art. IV. Not to break Bulk before Judgment. The ships, vessels, goods, wares, merchandises, and effects taken by virtue of letters of inarque and reprisals as aforesaid, shall be kept and preserved, and no part of them shall be sold, spoiled, wasted, er diminished, and the bulk thereof shall not be broken, before Judgment be given in the High Court of Admiralty of England, or some other court of admiralty lawfully authorised in that behalf, that the ships, goods, or merchandises are lawful prize. Art. V. Privateers to assist Shipa in Distress. —If any ship or vessel belonging to us, or our subjects, shall be found in distress by being in fight set upon or taken by the enemy, or by reason of any other accident, the commanders, officers, and company of such merchant ships or vessels as shall have letters of marque and reprisals as aforesaid, shall use their best endeavours to give ald and succour to all such ship and ships, and shall, to the utmost of their power, labour to free the same from the enemy, or any other distress, Art. VI. Application to the Admiralty for Letters of Marque. -The commanders or owners of such ships and vessels, before the taking out letters of marque and reprisals, shall make application in writing, subscribed with their hands, to our high admiral of Great Britain, or our commissioners for executing thas office for the time being, or the lieutenant or judge of the said High Court of Admiralty, or his surrogate, and shall therein set forth a particular, true, and exact description of the ship or vessel for which such letter of marque and reprisals is requested, specifying the burden of such ship or vessel, and the number and nature of the guns, and what other warlike furniture and ammunition are on board the same, to what place the ship be longs, and the name or names of the principal owner or owners of such ship or vessel, and the number of men intended to be put on board the same, and for what time they are victualled; also the names of the commanders and officers. Art. VII. Correspondence with the Admiralty. The commanders of ships and vessels having letters of marque and reprisals as aforesaid shall hold and keep, and are hereby enJoined to hold and keep, a correspondence, by all conveniences, and upon all occasions, with our high admiral of Great Britain, or our commissioners for executing that office for the time being, or their secretary, so as from time to time to render or give him or them, not only an account or intelligence of their captures and proceedings by virtue of such commission, but also of whatever else shall seem unto them, or be discovered and declared to them, or found out by them, or by examination of, or conference with, any marines or passengers of or in the ships or vessels taken, or by any other ways or means whatsoever, touching or concerning the designs of the enemy, or any of their fleets, ships, vessels or parties, and of the stations, sea-ports, and places, and of their intents therein; and what ships or vessels of the enemy bound out or home, or where cruising, as they shall hear of; and of what else material in these cases may arrive at their knowledge; to the end such course may be thereon taken, and such orders given, as may be requisite. Ant. VIII. What Colours a Privateer is to wear. No commander of any ship or vessel having a letter of marque and reprisals as aforesaid shall presume, as they will answer it at their peril, to wear any jack, pendant, or other ensign or colours usually borne by our ships; but, besides the colours usually borne by merchants' ships, they shall wear a red jack, with the union Jack described in the canton, at the upper corner thereof, near the staff. Art. IX. Not to ransom any Capture. - No commander of any ship or vessel, having a letter of marque and reprisal as aforesaid, shall ransom, or agree to ransom, or quit or set at liberty, any ship or vessel, or their cargoes, which shall be seized and taken. Art. X. To deliver their Prisoners to the proper Commissioners. All captains or commanding officers of ships having letters of marque and reprisala shall send an account of, and deliver over, what prisoners shall be taken on board any prizes, to the commissioners appointed, or to be appointed, for the exchange of prisoners of war, or the persons appointed in the sea-port towns to take charge of prisoners; and such prisoners shall be subject only to the orders, regulations, and directions of the said commissioners; and no commander or other officer of any ship, having a letter of marque or reprisal as aforesaid, shall presume, upon any pretence whatsoever, to ransom any pri soner. Art. XI. Commission forfeited for acting contrary hereto.-In case the commander of any ship, having a letter of marque and reprisals as aforesaid, shall act contrary to these instructions, or any such further instructions of which he shall have due notice, he shall forfeit his commission to all intents and purposes, and shall, together with his bail, be proceeded against according to law, and be condemned to costs and damages. Art. XII. Copies of Journals. All commanders of ships and vessels having letters of marque and reprisals shall, by every opportunity, send exact copies of their journals to the secretary of the admiralty, and proceed to the condemnation of the prizes as soon as may be, and without delay. Art. XIII. To observe all Orders. Commanders of ships and vessels having letters of marque and reprisals shall, upon due notice being given to them, observe all such other instructions and orders as we shall think fit to direct from time to time, for the better carrying on this service. Art. XIV. Violating these Instructions. All persons who shall violate these or any other of our instructions, shall be severely punished, and also required to make full reparation to persons injured contrary to our instructions, for all damages they shall sustain by any capture, embezzlement, demurrage, or otherwise. Art. XV. Bail to be given. Before any letter of marque or reprisal for the purposes aforesaid shall issue under seal, bail shall be given with sureties, before the lieutenant and judge of our High Court of Admiralty of England, or his surrogate, in the sum of 3,000l. sterling, if the ship carries above 150 men: and if a less number, in the sum of 1,5007. sterling; which bail shall be to the effect and in the form following:Which day, time and place, personally appeared and submitting themselves to the jurisdiction of the High Court of who Admiralty of England, obliged themselves, their heirs, execu- tons, whereof he the said copy of certain instructions, approved of and passed by his shall not take any ship or vessel, or any goods or merchandise, PROMISSORY NOTES. See BANKS AND BANKING. (Signed) PELHAM. PROTECTION, in mercantile navigation, a privilege granted to certain descriptions of seamen, by which they are protected from impressment. TRESSMENT.) PROVISIONS. - (See IM Under this term, taken in its most extensive sense, in reference to man, may be comprised all those articles used as food by the inhabitants of this and other countries; but among British merchants and in parliamentary language, it is understood to comprise only fresh and salted butchers' meat, hams, and bacon, butter and cheese, eggs, and a few other articles. We shall, however, avail ourselves of this opportunity to give, in addition to the details of the recent importation of the above articles, an account of the recent importation of cattle. Our readers are aware that previously to the 9th of July, 1842, the importation of cattle, sheep, and hogs, and of all sorts of fresh butchers' meat, was prohibited; and that a duty of 12s. a cwt. was imposed on all foreign salt meat when entered for consumption, and of 28s. a cwt. on bacon and hams. But in the tariff act of 1842, which came into operation at the above date, the prohibition of importing foreign cattle, sheep, hogs, and fresh meat was repealed, and their entry for home consumption admitted under fair and reasonable duties; the duty on salted meat being, at the same time, reduced from 12s. to 8s., and that on bacon and hams from 28s. to 14s. a cwt. We have already (art CATTLE) endeavoured to show that this wise and liberal measure, which will always reflect high credit on the administration of Sir Robert Peel, would not, as was generally supposed, occasion either a large importation of provisions or of cattle, and would, most probably, have but little influence over prices. And the experience of the period that has elapsed since the tariff took effect fully justifies these conclusions. In fact, though we expected nothing great, we are a good deal surprised at the limited extent of the importation, which sets in the most striking point of view the fallacy of the statements so frequently made of the comparatively high price of provisions in this country. We have already seen (antè, p. 257.) that from the 9th of July, 1842, when the new system came into operation, down to the 5th of January, 1843, only 4,277 head of cattle, including calves, were imported, and only 648 sheep and lambs: and though the Continental graziers have in the interim become better acquainted with the British markets, and the imports of cattle and sheep have been materially increased during the current year, (1845), they continue to be comparatively inconsiderable. Contrary to what was generally expected by well-informed parties, the imports of bacon, beef, and hams have not been perceptibly augmented, and are quite trifling. Account of the Numbers of Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, &c., and of the Quantities of Provisions, Imported and entered for Consumption in the U. Kingdom, with the Rates of Duty on the same, in the 10 Months from the 5th of January to the 5th of November, 1845. It is impossible to say in how great a degree these importations may be increased in time to come; but it is most probable that they will be gradually augmented according as foreigners become better acquainted with the qualities suitable for our markets. We have, however, no idea that they will ever amount to any considerable proportion of our supply. The truth is, that the cheapness of cattle and provisions in foreign markets, of which we used to hear so much, was in great part imaginary; and that, where it did occur, it depended more on the difficulty of conveying them to other markets, or on their inferiority, than on any thing else. The imports of fat cattle from Holstein and Holland, and of beef from Hamburg, with which our markets were to be glutted, have not hitherto done our graziers the smallest injury, and would not injure them though they were increased in a tenfold proportion; and the importation of lean cattle, so far from being injurious, is highly for their interest. The imports of American pork have hitherto been too insignificant to deserve notice. PRUNES AND PRUNELLOES, species of dried plums, of which there are many varieties. The finest are imported from France, in the south of which this fruit is very abundant. The best prunes are packed in hampers or baskets made of white osiers, weighing from 6 to 10 lbs. each; the second quality in quarters, and the third in puncheons. The duty on prunes, which was previously fixed at the extravagant rate of 27s. 6d. a cwt., was most properly reduced in 1834 to 78. a cwt. This reduced duty produced, in 1840, 5,776l., showing that 16,563 cwts. had been entered for consumption, Previously to the reduction of the duty, the entries seldom exceeded 6,000 cwt. Prunes, the produce of Europe, may not be imported for home consumption except in British ships or ships of the country of which they are the produce, or from which they are exported, on penalty of the forfeiture thereof and of 1007. by the master of the ship. - (3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 52. §§ 2. 22.) PRUSSIAN BLUE, OR PRUSSIATE OF IRON (Ger. Berlinerblau; Fr. Bleu de Prusse; It. Azurro Prussiano; Sp. Azul de Prussia; Rus. Lasor Bexlinskaja), a beautiful deep blue powder, accidentally discovered at Berlin in 1710. It is of considerable importance in the arts, being extensively used by painters: it is manufactured in this country. Many attempts have been made to render Prussian blue available for the dyeing of broad cloths, but without much success. The difficulty is to diffuse the colour equally over the surface; for, from its extraordinary vivacity and lustre, the slightest inequalities strike and offend the eye. Prussian blue resists the air and sun extremely well; but it cannot be used in the dyeing of cottons, or any sort of stuff that is to be washed with soap, as the alkali contained in the soap readily dissolves and separates the colouring matter.--(Bancroft on Colours, vol. ii. pp. 60—94.) Blue is a favourite colour with the Chinese, and in 1810-11 the imports of Prussian blue into Canton from England amounted to 1,899 piculs, or 253,200 lbs. But, for some years past, the Chinese have not imported a single pound weight. The cause of the cessation of the trade deserves to be mentioned. A common Chinese sailor, who came to England in an East Indiaman, having frequented a manufactory where the drug was prepared, learned the art of making it; and on his return to China, he established a similar work there, with such success that the whole empire is now amply supplied with native Prussian blue! The West has derived many important arts from the East; but we incline to think that this is the first well authenticated instance of any art having ever been carried from the West to the East, by a native of the latter. But, in all that respects industry, ingenuity, and invention, the Chinese are incomparably superior to every other people to the east of the Indus. PRUSSIAN OR GERMAN COMMERCIAL UNION. Next to the efforts of the Prussian government to diffuse the blessings of education, their efforts to introduce a free commercial system into Germany constitute their best claim to the gratitude and steem of their own subjects, and of the world. Germany, as every one knows, is divided into a vast number of independent, and mostly petty, states. Until a very recent period, every one of these states had its own custom-houses, and its own tariff' and revenue laws; which frequently differed very widely indeed from those of its neighbours. The internal trade of the country was, in consequence, subjected to all those vexatious and ruinous restrictions that are usually laid on the intercourse between distant and independent states. Each petty state endeavoured either to procure a revenue for itself, or to advance its own industry, by taxing or prohibiting the productions of those by which it was surrounded; and customs officers and lines of custom-houses were spread all over the country! Instead of being reciprocal and dependent, every thing was separate, independent, and hostile: the commodities admitted into Hesse were prohibited in Baden, and those prohibited in Wirtemberg were admitted into Bavaria. It is admitted on all hands that nothing has contributed so much to the growth of industry and wealth in Great Britain, as the perfect freedom of internal industry we have so long enjoyed, and that intimate correspondence among the various parts of the empire, which has rendered each the best market for the products of the other. How different would have been our present condition had each county been an independent state, jealous of those around it, and anxious to exalt itself at their expense! But, until within these few years, this was the exact condition of Germany; and, considering the extraordinary obstacles such a state of things opposes to the progress of manufactures, commerce, and civilisation, the wonder is, not that they are comparatively backward in that country, but that they should be so far advanced as they really are. But, thanks to the intelligence and perseverance of Prussia, this selfish anti-social system has been well nigh suppressed; and the most perfect freedom of commerce is now established among the great bulk of the Germanic nations. The disadvantages of the old system had long been seen and deplored by well-informed men; but so many interests had grown up under its protection, and so many deep-rooted prejudices were enlisted in its favour, that its overthrow seemed to be hopeless, or, at all events, exceedingly distant. The address and resolution of the Prussian government have, however, triumphed over every obstacle. Being fully impressed with a strong sense of the many advantages that would result to Prussia and Germany from the introduction of a free system of internal intercourse, they pursued the measures necessary to bring it about with an earnestness that produced conviction, and with a determination, coute qui coute, to carry their point. The first treaties in furtherance of this object were negotiated by Prussia with the principalities of Schwarzburg Sondershausen and Schwarzburg Rudolstadt, in 1818 and 1819, on the principle that there should be a perfect freedom of commerce between these countries and Prussia; that the duties on importation, exportation, and transit, in Prussia and the principalities, should be identical; that these should be charged along the frontier of the dominions of the contracting parties; and that each should participate in the produce of such duties, in proportion to its population. All the treaties subsequently entered into have been founded on this fair and equitable principle; the only exceptions to the perfect freedom of trade in all the countries comprised within the league or tariff alliance being confined, 1st, to articles constituting state monopolies, as salt and cards, in Prussia; 2d, to articles of native produce, burdened with a different rate of duty on consumption in one state from what they pay in another; and, 3d, to articles produced under patents conferring on the patentees certain privileges in the dominions of the states granting the patents. With these exceptions, which are not very important, and are daily decreasing, the most perfect freedom of commerce exists among the allied states. Since 1818, when the foundations of the alliance were laid, it has progressively extended, till it now comprises more than three fourths of the Germanic states, exclusive of Austria. Ducal Hesse joined the alliance in 1828, and Electoral Hesse in 1831; the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, and Wirtemberg joined it afterwards, as have Baden, Nassau, and almost all the smaller states by which it had not been previously joined, with the exception of Mecklenburg Schwerin, and Mecklenburg Strelitz. Hanover is not included within the league. In December, 1810, the tariff alliance comprised Prussia, without Neufchatel, but inclusive of the small parcels of other terrritories surrounded by her states Throughout the whole extent of this immense country, from Aix-la-Chapelle, on the confines of the Netherlands, eastward to Tilsit, on the confines of Russia, and from Stettin and Dantzic southwards to Switzerland and Bohemia, there is nothing to interrupt the freedom of commerce. A commodity, whether for consumption or transit, that has once passed the frontier of the league, may be subsequently conveyed, without let or hindrance, throughout its whole extent. Instead of being confined within the narrow precincts of their own territories, the products of each separate country of the alliance may now be sent to every one else; each will, in consequence, apply itself, in preference, to those departments in which it has some natural or acquired advantage; and each will have to depend for its success, not on the miserable resource of customs regulations, but on its skill and industry. The competition thence arising will be most salutary; and, should the peace of Europe be preserved, we run little risk in saying, that all sorts of industry will make more progress among the states comprised within the tariff alliance, during the next ten years, than they have done during the previous half century. An assembly of representatives from the allied states meets annually, to hear complaints, adjust difficulties, and make such new enactments as may seem to be required. The Prussian tariff has been adopted, with certain modifications. The duties are received into a common treasury, and are apportioned according to the population of each of the allied states. In addition to its other advantages, the new system has reduced the cost of collecting the duties to a mere trifle, compared with its former amount; and has enabled hundreds of custom-houses, and thousands of customs officers, to be employed in the different departments of industry. The existing discrepancy in the weights and measures used in different parts of Germany occasions considerable inconvenience; and we are glad to observe that the equalisation of weights and measures, and their reduction to a common standard in all the allied states, is declared to be one of the objects of the league. It is also expressly provided that the tolls, or other charges in lieu thereof, shall, in all cases, whether they belong to the public or to private individuals, be limited to the sums required to keep the roads in a proper state of repair; and that the tolls existing in Prussia shall be considered as the highest that are to be levied, and shall not in any case be exceeded. It was at first supposed by many persons in this country, and the opinion is not yet entirely abandoned, that the Prussian league was in some degree directed against us, and that, at all events, it threatened to be very injurious to our trade with Germany; we do not, however, believe that there is any foundation whatever for either of these opinions. The alliance was planned, and brought to its present advanced state, in the view, and with the intention, of putting down the galling and innumerable restraints by which the intercourse of the German states with each other was formerly interrupted; and not with the intention of throwing any obstacles in the way of the trade of the alliance with foreign countries: it is, indeed, quite absurd to suppose that it should have this effect. The freedom of internal commerce will do ten times more to promote the industry and prosperity of the allied states than any other measure, or system of measures, that their governments could have adopted; and, as population increases, and the inhabitants become more industrious and wealthy, there will, no doubt, be an augmented demand for foreign products. The league is now no new thing. It was formed several years since, and has been progressively augmented: but, hitherto, it has not had the slightest influence in diminishing our intercourse with Germany; our exports to it, including Holland and Belgium, being greater at present than at any former period!-(See antè, p. 691.) Generally speaking, the duties on imports are reasonable; at least, on all the finer descriptions of goods. It never, in fact, can be the policy of the alliance to make them oppressive; for, though certain states might erroneously suppose that their interests would be promoted by such means, others would undoubtedly be of a different opinion, and would resist any attempt to carry them beyond a reasonable amount. It is a mistake to suppose that Prussia has an overwhelming influence in the assembly. She must conciliate the other states, and carry them along with her; and this can only be |