CHAPTER IX.

SYNTAX.

793. SANSKRIT syntax, unlike that of Greek and Latin, offers fewer difficulties than the other portions of the Grammar. In fact, the writer who has fully explained the formation of compounds has already more than half completed his exposition of the laws which regulate the order, arrangement, and collocation of the words in a sentence (vákya-vinyása, vákya-viveka, padánvaya).

794. Observe-In the present chapter on Syntax, that the subject may be made as clear as possible, each word will be separated from the next, and vowels will not be allowed to coalesce, although such coalition be required by the laws of combination. When compounds are introduced, a dot will generally be placed underneath, to mark the division of the different members. Much vagueness and uncertainty, however, may be expected to attach to the rules propounded, when it is remembered that Sanskrit literature consists almost entirely of poetry, and that the laws of syntax are ever prone to yield to the necessities of metrical composition.

THE ARTICLE.

afin a certain The definite article may

795. There is no indefinite article in classical Sanskrit; but af (228) and in modern Sanskrit (200) are sometimes used to supply the place of such an article; thus, country;': 'a certain jackal.' not unfrequently be expressed by the pronoun may mean simply the man,' not necessarily however, more commonly omitted, and must generally be translated by 'that.'

(220); thus, a ye¶:

that man.' It is, when joined to a noun.

CONCORD OF THE VERB WITH THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 796. The verb must agree with the nominative case in number and person; as, waifu ‘I must perform.'

a. Other examples are, त्वम् अवधेहि 'do thou attend ;' स ददाति ' he gives ;' जावां ब्रूव: 'we two say ;' कपोता ऊचु: 'the pigeons said ;' युवां चिन्तयतम् ' do you two reflect ;' यूयम् आयात 'do ye come;' सज्जनाः पूज्यन्ते 'good men are honoured ;' व्राति पवन: ‘the wind blows;' उदेति शशाङ्कः 'the moon rises;' स्फुटति पुष्पम् 'the flower blossoms.'

Obs. Of course, therefore, two nouns in the singular connected by require the verb in the dual; as, the king and minister went;'

qqq amļai fren: 'as long as the moon and sun remain.'

b. The position of the verb is not always the same as in English. It may some

times come last in the sentence.

797. When a participle takes the place of a finite verb, it must agree with the nominative in number and gender; as, : ‘hê went;’ सा गता ‘she went ;' नार्यौ उक्तवत्यौ ' the two women spoke ;' राजा हृत: ‘the king was killed ;'

बन्धनानि छिनानि ' the bonds were cut.'

a. Sometimes, when it is placed between two or more nominative cases, it agrees with one only; as, ay: naifum yaw his wife and son were awakened.'

b. The following is noticeable : राज्यम् आत्मा वयं वधूर नीतानि पणताम् 'kingdom, self, we, and wife were brought (neut. pl.) to the state of a stake (to be played for),' Kirát. XI. 47. See also 906.

c. Very often the copula, or verb which connects the subject with the predicate, is omitted; when, if an adjective stand in the place of the verb, it will follow the rules of concord in gender and number; as, 'wealth is difficult of attainment; But if a substantive stand in the place of the verb, no concord of gender or number need take place; as, सम्पदः पदम् आपदाम् 'successes are the road to misfortune.'

we two have finished eating.

CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE SUBSTANTIVE.

798. An adjective, participle, or adjective pronoun, qualifying a substantive, when not compounded with it, must agree with the substantive in gender, number, and case; as, ary: g: 'a good man;’ महद् दुःखम् ' great pain ;' एतेषु पूर्वोक्तेषु राष्ट्रेषु ' in these beforementioned countries;' fu faafu 'three friends.'

CONCORD OF THE RELATIVE WITH THE ANTECEDENT.

799. The relative must agree with the antecedent noun in gender, number, and person; but in Sanskrit the relative pronoun generally precedes the noun to which it refers, this noun being put in the same case with the relative, and the pronoun follows in the latter clause ; as, यस्य नरस्य बुद्धिः स बलवान् 'the man who has intellect is strong' (lit. ' of whatever man there is intellect, he is strong').

a. The noun referred to by the relative may also be joined with 77, as बुद्धिः स नरो बलवान्; or may be omitted altogether, as यत् प्रतिज्ञातं तत् पालय ' what you have promised, that abide by ;' येषाम् अपत्यानि खादितानि तैः (पक्षिभिः understood) fag by those (birds) whose young ones were devoured an inquiry was set on foot;' यः सर्वान् विषयान् प्राप्नुयाद् यश्च एतान् उपेक्षते तयोर् विषयापेक्षकः श्रेयान् 'he who would obtain all objects of sense, and he who despises them, of the two the despiser is the best."

800. The relative sometimes stands alone, an antecedent noun or pronoun being

understood, from which it takes its gender and number; as,fì a vठOf what use is scriptural knowledge (to one) who does not practice virtue?ff'What is the use of wealth (to him) who does not

give?'

a. Sometimes, though rarely, the antecedent noun precedes the relative in the natural order ; as, न सा भाया यस्यां भर्ता न तुष्यति 'she is not a wife in whom the husband does not take pleasure.'

801. तावत् and यावत् stand to each other in the relation of demonstrative and relative; as, यावन्ति तस्य द्वीपस्य वस्तूनि तावन्ति अस्माकम् उपनेतव्यानि ' as many products as belong to that island, so many are to be brought to us.' See also 876. a. Similarly, तादृश and यादृश; as, यादृशं वृत्तं तादृशं तस्मै कथितवन्त: ' as the event occurred, so they related it to him.' Cf. 920. a.

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.

802. Under this head it is proposed to explain the construction of substantives, without special reference to the verbs which govern them; and for this purpose it will be desirable to exhibit examples beginning with the nominative case.

Nominative Case.

803. A substantive simply and absolutely expressed must be placed in the nominative case; as, fan: 'the Hitopadeśa;' भट्टिकाव्यम् ' the poem of Bhatti.'

a. Two nominativé cases in different numbers may be placed in apposition to each other; as, quifa qui 'grass as a bed.'

Accusative Case.

804. Substantives are not found in the accusative, unconnected with verbs or participles, except as expressing 'duration of time' or 'space. See 821.

Instrumental Case.

The most usual is

805. This case yields a variety of senses. that of the agent' and 'the instrument' or 'means' by which anything is done ; as, मया (उक्तम् ) ' by me it was said ;' व्याधेन (पाशो योजितः) 'by the fowler a snare was laid;' aqua 'by the study of the Vedas;''with one's own eye.'

806. It also has the force of 'with' in expressing other collateral ideas ; as, बलीयसा स्पर्धा 'vying with the strong ;' मित्रेण सम्भाष: 'conversation with a friend ;' पशुभि: सामान्यम् 'equality with beasts;' पितुर्

matu‘with the knowledge of (his) father:' especially when ‘accompaniment' is intended; as, fu 'the master with his pupil;' WIGGIE: 'the fifth with myself,' i. e. ' myself and four others.'

807. The other senses yielded by this case are, through,' by reason of,' 'on account of;' as, कृपया 'through compassion;' तेन अपराधेन 'on account of that transgression:' especially in the case of abstract nouns formed with

a. ‘According to,’ ‘by; as, विधिना 'according to rule;' मम सम्मतेन 'according to my opinion;'

by birth.'

b. 'The manner in which anything is done, as denoted in English by the adverbial affix ‘ly,' or by the prepositions 'in,' 'at;' as, 'in abundance ;' धर्मेण ‘virtuously;’ यथेच्छया or स्वेच्छया 'at pleasure ;' सुखेन 'at ease;' अनेन विधिना ' in this way;' महता खेहेन (निवसतः) 'they both dwell together in great intimacy;' (नृपः सर्वभूतानि अभिभवति) तेजसा 'a king surpasses all beings in glory; (a) such a deed must not even be imagined in the mind;' मानुषरूपेण ‘in human form ;' प्रतिबन्धेन ' for a hindrance.’

808. Substantives expressive of 'want,'' need,' may be joined with the instrumental of the thing wanted; as, there is no occasion for inquiry;' मया सेवकेन न प्रयोजनम् ' there is no need of me as a servant ;' तृणेन कार्यम् ' there

is use for a straw.'

809. The price' for which anything is done may be in the instrumental; as, पञ्चभिः पुराणैर् (याति दासत्वम्) 'for five Puránas he becomes a slave;' बहुभिर् दत्तैर् ( युध्यन्ते) 'they fight for great rewards' Similarly, प्राण परित्यागमूल्येन (श्रीर् न )fortune is not obtained at the price of the sacrifice of life.'

a. So also difference between' two things; as, FY1 BYTU ▼ REG W‘there

is great difference between you and the ocean.'

from a husband' (or भती सह वियोग:). Similarly, विच्छेदो हरिणा सह ' separation

from Hari.'

c. The English expression under the idea that' is expressed by the instrumental case of the substantive f; as, 'under the idea that he was a tiger.'

Double Instrumental.

810. Sometimes when two substantives come together, expressing 'parts' of a common idea, they are both placed in the instrumental, instead of one in the genitive; as, वकुलैः पुष्पैर् वास्यते ' an odour is emitted by the Vakula-plants by their flowers' (for वकुलानां पुष्पैः). Similarly, ताम् श्राश्वासयामास प्रेष्पाभिश् चन्द:he caused her to revive by her attendants by sandal-water.'

Dative Case.

811. This case is of very limited applicability, and its functions, irrespectively of the influence of verbs, are restricted to the expression

of 'the object,' ' motive,' or 'cause' for which anything is done, or 'the result' to which any act tends; as, faq 'for self-aggrandizement;' आापत्प्रतीकाराय ' for the counteraction of calamity ;' शस्त्रं च mtá a afaqad 'arms and books (lead) to renown.'

a. When, as in the last example, the result' or 'end' to which anything leads is denoted by this case, the verb is seldom expressed, but appears to be involved in the case itself. The following are other examples : यत्र जास्ते विषसंसर्गोऽमृतं तदपि मृत्यवे ' where there is admixture of poison, then even nectar (leads) to death;' gărui nedara a m'advice to fools (leads) to irritation, not to conciliation ;' स वृद्ध पतिस् तस्याः सन्तोषाय न अभवत् 'that old husband was not to her liking ;' स राजा तस्या रुचये न बभूव 'that king was not to her liking;' fago for the accomplishment' (of this matter).

b. It will be seen hereafter that certain verbs of giving and relating govern the dative. Substantives derived from such verbs exercise a similar influence; as, अन्यस्मै दानम् 'the giving to another ;' अन्यस्मै कथनम् 'the telling to another.'

c. Words expressive of 'salutation' or 'reverence' are joined with the dative; as, गणेशाय नमः ' reverence to Ganesa;' कुशलं ते 'health to thee.'

Ablative Case.

812. The proper force of the ablative case is expressed by 'from ;' as, लोभात् (क्रोधः प्रभवति) ' from avarice anger arises ;' गिरे: पतनम् 'falling from a mountain;' uwi yen 'from the mouth of the spies.' चाराणां मुखात्

813. Hence this case passes to the expression of various correlative ideas; as, E fafe a portion of (from) their food:' and like the instrumental it very commonly signifies 'because,' 'by reason of,' 'in consequence of;' as, गोमनुषाणां बधात् 'on account of the slaughter of cows and men ;' अनवसर प्रवेशात् (पुत्रं निन्दति) 'he blames his son for entering inopportunely; दण्डभयात् 'through fear of punishment; ergeby reason of my good fortune;' Tesfagim because (there is) no difference as to the result.'

a. According to; as,

according to the advice of the minister." Abstract nouns in are often found in this case to express some of these ideas; as, अनवस्थितः चित्तत्वात् 'by reason of the unsteadiness of his mind:' especially in the writings of commentators; as, according to what will be said hereafter;' स्पृष्टेषत्स्पृष्टेषद्विवृतः विवृतसंवृत, भेदात् 'according to the division of touched, slightly touched, slightly open, open and contracted.'

814. It also expresses through the means' or 'instrumentality of; as, पाशबद्धः ‘caught in the toils through the instrumentality of the jackal ;' न औषधपरिज्ञानाद (व्याधेः शान्तिर् भवेत् ) ' the alleviation of disease is not effected by the mere knowledge of the medicine.’