CHAP. III.-ROOTS, AND THE FORMATION OF NOMINAL STEMS Formation of the stems of nouns by suffixes CHAP. IV. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Formation of the stem in the four Special tenses: Of group I. or verbs of the first, fourth, sixth, and tenth classes Of groups II. and III.-Preliminary observations. The new rules of Sandhi required for group II. Of group II. or verbs of the second, third, and seventh classes Of group III. or verbs of the fifth, eighth, and ninth classes Table of verbs of the ten conjugational classes inflected at full 235 Table of passive verbs inflected at full . Group I. Verbs of the first class conjugated Verbs of the fourth class conjugated Group II. Verbs of the second class conjugated. Verbs of the seventh class conjugated . Group III. Verbs of the fifth class conjugated Verbs of the eighth class conjugated Tat-purusha or dependent compounds . Dvandva or copulative (aggregative) compounds CHAPTER I. LETTERS. 1. THE Deva-nágarí or Nágarí character (or its modifications *), in which the Sanskrit language is usually written, is adapted to the expression of nearly every gradation of sound; and almost every letter has a fixed and invariable pronunciation (see, however, 16). There are fourteen vowels (or without rí thirteen, see 3. d) and thirty-three simple consonants. To these may be added a nasal sign, standing for either true or substitute Anusvára (see 6), and a sign for a hard breathing, called Visarga (see 8). They are here first exhibited in the order followed in dictionaries. All the vowels, excepting a, have two forms; the first is the initial, the second the medial or non-initial. Nasal sign called true or proper Anusvára, n. Substitute Two characters, 5, oh (often 3d, dh), are used in the Veda. = * Such as the Bengálí, Gujarátí, &c. In the South of India Sanskrit is generally written, not in the Deva-nágarí, but in the Telugu, Kanarese, and Malayalam B The characters are written from left to right, like the Roman. The compound or conjunct consonants (see 5) may be multiplied to the extent of four or five hundred. The most common are given here. A more complete list will be found at the end of the volume. nn, ny, or a tr, tv, ts, tt, tth, tn, tm, ty, thy, dg, ≈ bd, by, â rk, ш yy, & rm, a lp, a ll, a vy, a vr, a śɛ, qu by, a śr, a śl, a śv, e sht, ♬ sy, ♬ sr, ♬ sv, TM kshn, TM kshm, shy, sk, skh, st, sth,sn, hl, sm, ♬ ss, a hm, ◄ hy, च्छल Chy, च्छू Ether, राझ ndy, त्न tsn, म्य tmy, त्र्य try, त्स्य tsy, a ttr, shṭr, tsny,ntry, rtsy, characters, as well as in the Grantha (or Grantham), which is a name for the character used for Sanskrit in the Tamil country, the Tamil alphabet being too defective to represent all the necessary sounds. In the second edition of this Grammar I gave a comparative table of old Inscription characters from Mr. Edward Thomas' edition of Prinsep's Indian Antiquities, which shows that the present form of Deva-nágarí character is traceable to the inscriptions of Aśoka, who is called Piyadasi for Priyadarsin-a well-known Buddhist king, grandson of Candra-gupta = Sandrakottos-and who must have reigned over nearly the whole of India, his capital being Patali-putra (=Páli-bothra, the modern Patna). These inscriptions are found on rocks at Giri-nagara (Girnár) in Gujarát on the Western coast, and at Dhaulí in Kuttack on the Eastern coast (in the province of Orissa); and again at a place called Kapurdigiri, quite N. of the Paňjáb, a little to the E. of Purushapura (Peshawar). It is from the Girnár rock-inscriptions that the present Devanágarí is most evidently derived, and these are not yet clearly traceable to a Phenician origin, those of Kapurdigiri being more so. Observe-In reading the following pages for the first time, the attention should be confined to the large type. Observe also-When reference is made to other parts of the Grammar, the numbers will denote the paragraphs, not the pages. The letters (except r, called Repha, and except the nasal sign called Anusvára and the sign for the hard breathing called Visarga) have no names (like the names in the Greek alphabet), but the consonants are enunciated with the vowel a. Native grammarians, in designating any letter, add the word kára; thus, a-kára, 'the letter a;' ka-kára, 'the letter ka.?' THE VOWELS AND THE METHOD OF WRITING THEM. 2. The short vowel a is never written unless it begin a word, because it is supposed to be inherent in every consonant. Thus, ak is written, but ka is written; so that in such words as ́ kanaka, nagara, &c., no vowel has to be written. The mark under the k of, called Viráma (see 9), indicates a consonantal stop, that is, the absence of any vowel, inherent or otherwise, after a final consonant. It is omitted in the first tables that the letters may be kept unencumbered by additional marks. a. The other vowels, if written after a consonant, take the place of the inherent a. They assume two forms, according as they are initial or not initial. Thus, ák, ká; ş ik, fa ki. b. Observe here, that the short vowel fi, when initial, is written in its right place, but when not initial, is always written before the letter after which it is pronounced. Hence, in order to write such a word as iti, the letters would have to be arranged thus, it fa. c. Perhaps the true explanation of this peculiarity is that in the earliest alphabets the two i's were written over the consonant to which they belonged, short i inclining to the left, and long í to the right, a perpendicular stroke having been afterwards added. after a consonant. 3. The long vowels 1 á and í, not initial, take their proper place Also the non-initial o and au (which are formed over 1 á), like ά, take their proper place after by placing and |