as to the supplies of corn that might be obtained from Dantzie, were our ports constantly open under a reasonable duty. Mr. Jacob gives the following

Account of the Total annual Average Quantity of Wheat and Rye exported from Dantzic, in Periods of 25 Years each, for the 166 Years ending with 1825.

"The average of the whole period," Mr. Jacob observes, "gives an annual quantity of wheat and rye of 279,794 quarters; and this surplus may be fairly considered as the nearest approach that can be made, with existing materials, to what is the usual excess of the produce of bread corn above the consumption of the inhabitants, when no extraordinary circumstances occur to excite or check cultivation.”—(Report, p. 49.)

We incline, however, to think that Mr. Jacob has underrated the capabilities of improvement of the countries traversed by the Vistula, the Bug, &c.; and that while our ports are open with a duty of 18., we may, supposing our average prices not to fall below 458. or 488. a quarter, reckon upon getting from Dantzic an annual supply of from 250,000 to 400,000 quarters. It should, however, be observed, that Mr. Meek, who visited the N. of Europe in the latter part of 1841 and early in 1842, concurs with Mr. Jacob in thinking it improbable that any considerable increase of exportation would take place from Dantzic under any modification of our corn laws. —(Parl. Paper, No. 7. Sess. 1842, p. 31.) But it is difficult to believe that such should be the case. Down to a late period, owing to the fluctuating and capricious nature of our demand, it proved of little advantage to the Polish cultivators; and but little corn was raised in the expectation of its finding its way to England. But, there can be no reasonable doubt that it will be different now that our ports are always open. The supply of our markets will most probably become an object of importance to the Polish agriculturists; and if so, the fair presumption is that they will endeavour to extend and improve their tillage, and the means of bringing corn to market. At the same time, nothing positive can be stated on the subject, inasmuch as the stimulus given to Polish agriculture by the change in our corn laws will wholly depend on the extent of our demand; and if, as we apprehend will be the case, it should, in ordinary seasons, be more limited than is commonly supposed, it will have comparatively little influence. We subjoin an

Account exhibiting the Quantities of the different Varieties of Corn and the Quantities of Flour shipped from Dantzic during each of the Seven Years ending with 1840, with the Prices of Wheat in Dantzic during the same Period.

There were shipped from Dantzic, in 1849, 253,528 quarters of wheat, of which 248,270 were for the U. Kingdom.

Quality of Dantzic Wheat. The price of wheat in Dantzic is usually about 7s. a quarter above its average price in Hamburg, and about 2s. above the average of Amsterdam. This difference is entirely owing to the superior quality of the Dantzic wheat. Though small grained, and not so heavy as several other sorts, it is remarkably thin-skinned, and yields the finest flour. Some of the best white, or, as it is technically termed, " high mixed" Dantzic wheat, is superior to the very best English; but the quantity of this sort is but limited, and the average quality of all that is exported from Dantzic is believed to approach very nearly to the average quality of English wheat. Allowing for its superior quality, it will be found that wheat is, speaking generally, always cheaper in Dantzic than in any of the Continental ports nearer to London. There are but few seasons, indeed, in which Dantzic wheat is not largely imported into Amsterdam; and it frequently, also, finds its way into Hamburg. But it is quite impossible that such should be the case, unless, taking quality and other modifying circumstances into account, it were really cheaper than the native and other wheats met with in these markets. When there is any considerable importation into

England, it is of every day occurrence for merchants to order Dantzie wheat in preference to that of Holstein, or of the Lower Elbe, though the latter might frequently be put into warehouse here for 18s. a quarter less than the former! It is, therefore, quite indispensable, in attempting to draw any inferences in regard to the comparative prices of corn in different countries, to make the requisite allowances for differences of quality. Unless this be done, whatever conclusions may be come to can hardly fail of being false and misleading; and when they happen to be right, they can only be so through the merest accident.

Dantzic being by far the greatest port for the exportation of wheat in the north of Europe, its price in her market may be assumed as the general measure of the price in other shipping ports. At all events, it is certain that when Dantzic is exporting, wheat cannot be shipped, taking quality into account, at a cheaper rate from any other place. The importer invariably resorts to what he believes to be, all things considered, the cheapest market; and it is a contradiction and an absurdity to suppose that he should burden himself with a comparatively high freight, and other charges for wheat in Dantzie, provided he could buy an equally good article in so convenient a port as Hamburg at the same or a lower price.

If, therefore, we are right in estimating the lowest price at which wheat can be imported from Dantzic free of duty, in ordinary years, at about 458. or 46s., we may be assured that this is the lowest importation price. The greater cheapness of the imports from other places is apparent only; and is uniformly countervailed by a corresponding inferiority of quality. (See the articles DANTZIC, KÖNIGSBERG, &c.)

Russian Corn Trade. - Russia exports large quantities of wheat, rye, oats, and meal. The wheat of the Northern provinces is of various qualities; but the greater portion is small-grained, coarse, brown, and badly dressed. The hard, or Kubanka, is the best; it keeps well, and is in considerable demand for mixing with other wheats that are old or stale. Russian oats are thin; but being dried in the straw, they weigh better than could be expected from their appearance, and are reckoned wholesome food. Our imports from Russia in 1839 amounted to 371,693 quarters wheat, 316,823 do. oats, and 14,000 do. rye. But though this was far above the then average importation, it has since been greatly exceeded, principally in consequence of the late extraordinary increase of the exports from the Southern provinces. In 1850, for example, we imported 642.635 quarters wheat from Russia, of which 572,446 quarters were from ports on the Black Sea. During the same year we imported 279,087 quarters oats, and 12,345 do. barley. (The reader will find notices of the N. Russian corn trade under the articles ARCHANGEL, PETERSBURGH, and RIGA. For an account of the corn trade by the Black Sea, see post, and the articles ODESSA and TAGANROG.)

Danish Corn Trade. - The export of wheat from Denmark Proper, that is, from Jutland and the islands, is not very considerable. There is, however, a large exportation of wheat, barley, and other grain, as well as of butter, cheese, beef, &c., from Sles. wick and Holstein. As already stated, the quality of the wheat is inferior: for, though it looks plump, it is coarse and damp. The chief shipping port for Danish corn is Kiel; but, owing to the facilities enjoyed by Hamburg, considerable quantities of it are consigned to that city. The quantities and values of the corn, flour, beans, &c., exported from Denmark and the Duchies, in 1847, were as follows, viz. –

Corn Trade of the Elbe, &c.

The exports

Next to Dantzic, Hamburg is, perhaps, the greatest corn market in the north of Europe, being a depôt for large quantities of Baltic corn, and for the produce of the extensive countries traversed by the Elbe. of wheat from Hamburg amounted, as seen below, at an average of the 11 years ending with 1841, to 210,871 quarters a year. The price of wheat, as already stated, is frequently less in Hamburg than in Dantzic; but this lowness of price is altogether ascribable to the inferiority of the Holstein and Hanover wheats, which are generally met with in great abundance in Hamburg. Wheat from the Upper Elbe is of a better quality. Bohemian wheat is occasionally forwarded by the river to Hamburg; but the charges attending its conveyance from Prague amount to full 15s. a quarter, and prevent its being sent down, except when the price is comparatively high. 1849, the shipments of wheat from Hamburg amounted to 286,209 quarters, of which 226,864 were for England. Perhaps we may be able, should our prices average about 458., to import in ordinary years from 300,000 to 400,000 quarters of wheat from Denmark and the countries intersected by the Weser and the Elbe.

In

Account of the Exports of the various Descriptions of Corn from Hamburg during each of the Eleven Years ending with 1841.

Average exports of wheat for the above 11 years, 210,570f{quarters.

N. B.-The Hamburg last is equal to about 11 imperial quarters.

Dutch Corn Trade. - Amsterdam is an important depôt for foreign corn, every variety of which may be found there. Only a small part of its consumption is supplied by corn of native growth; so that the prices in it are for the most part dependent on those at which corn may be brought from Dantzic, Kiel, Hamburg, and other shipping ports. The corn trade of Holland was formerly conducted under a low fixed duty. In 1835, however, a sliding scale of duties, varying inversely according to the fluctuations of the home prices, was adopted. This scale continued in force till 1845, when the potato rot, which made its appearance here as well as in Ireland, occasioned its repeal, and the imposition of fixed duties of 1s. 5d. per quarter on wheat, Is. Id. per, do on rye, 10d. per do. on barley, and 9d. per do. on oats. It was provided, in 1847, that this scale should be revised in 1850-51. And its practical operation having been found to be highly satisfactory, government has introduced a bill by which it is to be perpetuated. At an average of the 3 years ending with 1850 the prices in the Netherlands were, wheat 368.11d., rye 23s. 10d., barley 18s. 4d., oats 12s. 10d., and buck-wheat 238. 9d. per Imp. quarter.

Rotterdam is a very advantageous port for warehousing foreign corn, being conveniently situated, and the warehouse rent low, not exceeding 2d. or 2d. per quarter per month.

French Corn Trade. — It appears, from the accounts given by Garnier in the last edition of his translation of the Wealth of Nations, that the price of the hectolitre of wheat in the market of Paris amounted, at an average of the 19 years ending with 1819, to 20 fr. 53 cents. And Chaptal, in his valuable work, Sur l'Industrie Française (tom. i. p. 226.) published in 1819, estimated the ordinary average price of wheat throughout France at 18 fr. the hectolitre. But it is seen from the subjoined table that the price of wheat in France, at an average of the half century ending with 1850, amounted to 20 fr. 20 cents the hectolitre, equivalent to 45s. 7d. the imperial quarter.*

Average Price per Hectolitre of Wheat in France in each Year from 1800 to 1850, both inclusive.

Owing to the deficient harvest of 1846, prices were occasionally higher in France than in England; and considerable quantities of wheat were taken out of bond in London and other British ports for shipment to France. The various expenses attending the importation of a quarter of French wheat into London and its delivery to the millers may be taken, at a medium, at about 78. a quarter. France had formerly but little surplus produce to dispose of; so that it would have been impossible for us to import any considerable quantity of French corn without occasioning a great advance of price; but, as will be immediately seen, a great change has taken place in this respect of late years, and France has latterly sent us very large supplies.

The mean of the different estimates framed by Vauban, Quesnay, Expilly, Lavoisier, and Arthur Young, gives 61,519,672 septiers, or 32,810,000 quarters, as the total average growth of the different kinds of grain in France. (Peuchet, Statistique Elé

* The hectolitre is equal to 2-7512 imperial bushels, and the quarter to 2:82 hectolitres.

mentaire, p. 290.) We, however, took occasion formerly to observe ( Supp. to Encyc. Brit. art. Corn Laws) that there could not be a doubt that this estimate was a great deal too low; and the more careful investigations of late French statisticians fully confirm this remark. The annual produce of the harvest of France was lately (1843) estimated, from returns obtained under official authority, at 69,558,000 hectolitres of wheat, and 112,958,000 do. of other sorts of grain; making in all 182,517,000 hectolitres, or 62,740,000 Imp. quarters. Of this quantity it was supposed that about 16 per cent, was consumed as seed, 19 per cent. in the feeding of different species of animals, and 2 per cent. in distilleries and breweries.

The reader will not fail to observe that, according to this statement, the consumption of corn in France, which has a population of about 35,000,000, is not more than equal to that of the U. Kingdom, the population of which may be taken at 28,000,000. And we have no doubt that such is the fact; for, though the consumption of corn in France materially exceeds its proportional consumption in Ireland, it is far below the proportional consumption of Great Britain. The corn expended in this country in the keep of horses and in distilleries would, of itself, suffice to feed a third part of the people of France. The foreign corn trade of France was regulated till within these few years by a law which forbade exportation, except when the home prices were below certain limits; and which restrained and absclutely forbade importation except when they were above certain other limits. The prices regulating importation and exportation differed in the different districts into which the kingdom was divided. Latterly, however, importation has been at all times allowed under graduated duties, which, like those recently existing in this country, become prohibitory when the prices sink to a certain level. The frontier departments are divided into 4 separate districts, the prices in each district governing the duties on importation into it, so that it sometimes happens that corn warehoused in a particular port, where it is not admissible except under a high duty, has been carried to another port in another district, and admitted at a low duty. An official announcement is issued on the last day of each month, of what the duties are to be in each district during the succeeding month.

The imports of wheat and wheat-flour from France into this country have, as already stated, very largely increased since 1847, and now amount to a much greater quantity than any one had previously anticipated. This will be evident from the following

Account of the Quantities of Wheat and Wheat Flour respectively, imported from France into the U. Kingdom during each of the 20 Years ending with 1850.

It

This unexpected and immense increase is, no doubt, owing to a variety of causes. will be observed, that the increase of the imports of flour has considerably exceeded that of the imports of wheat. And this is a consequence, not so much of the greater cheapness as of the better quality of French flour. The business of grinding corn is, in fact, better understood, and is in a more advanced state in France than in England; a consequence partly of the superior quality of the mill-stones of La Brie, which are in common use in the former, but more of the greater care taken in the process, and of the sorting of the flour into a greater variety of qualities. Perhaps, also, the French wheat, being harder than the English, may be better suited to produce fine flour. Probably, however, the extraordinary fall that has taken place in the price of wheat in France since 1848, coupled with the shock which the revolution of that year gave to all sorts of industrious undertakings and to consumption, did more than anything else to stimulate exportation. But we doubt whether it will be maintained. The previous table shows that the price of wheat in 1850 had sunk to 14 fr. 26 cents the hect. (328. the Imp. quarter); and this being the lowest price in the course of the last half century, and 5 fr. 94 cents per hect. under the average price of the period, there is every probability that it will again rise, and if so, importation will be checked. But whether this anticipation be well or ill founded, and whatever may be, in other respects, the influence of the importation, it will, no doubt, occasion a material improvement in the art of grinding corn in this country. Indeed, several meliorations have been already effected in our mills, and others of a more important character are in progress.

Spanish Corn Trade. The exportation of corn from Spain was formerly prohibited under the severest penalties. But in 1820, grain and flour were both allowed to be freely exported; and in 1823, this privilege was extended to all productions (frutos), the growth of the soil. There is now, in fact, no obstacle whatever, except the expen e of carriage, to the conveyance of corn to the sea-ports, and thence to the foreigner. Owing, however, to the corn-growing provinces being principally situated in the interior, and to the extreme badness of the roads, which renders carriage to the coast both expensive and difficult, the exports are reduced within comparatively narrow limits: the same difficulty of carriage frequently gives rise to very great differences in the prices in markets, in all parts of the country, only a few leagues distant. Were the means of

communication improved, and any thing like security given to the husbandman, Spain would, in no long time, become one of the principal exporting countries of Europe. Old Castile, Leon, Estremadura, and that part of Andalusia to the south and east of Seville, are among the finest corn countries of Europe, and might be made to yield immense supplies. But owing to the disturbed state of the country, and the want or a market for their produce, they can hardly be said to be at all cultivated. And yet such is their natural fertility, that in good seasons the peasants only reap those fields nearest to the villages!

Corn Trade of Odessa. Odessa, on the Black Sea, is now the principal corn shipping port of S. Europe. Inasmuch, however, as but little of the corn sent from Odessa is raised in the province of Kherson in her neighbourhood, the exports depend in a great degree on the price; a comparatively high price being necessary to pay the cost of conveying corn from Podolia and Kief, whence only large supplies can be derived, to the port. The navigation of the Dnieper, which intersects these provinces, and would otherwise be a most important channel of communication, is unluckily interrupted in the lower part of its course by cataracts, so that a very large portion of the corn brought at present to Odessa is conveyed to it in carts drawn by oxen; and the supply depends almost as much on the number of cattle that may be employed for this purpose as on the productiveness of the harvests. A portion, also, though but a small one, of the supplies for Odessa is brought by coasters from the Sea of Azof, and from some of the smaller ports on the Black Sea. It appears from an official statement published in Odessa, that the total quantity of wheat brought to the town in the undermentioned years was --

This table shows the extraordinary increase that has taken place in the supplies of corn brought to Odessa. The exports in 1847 amounted to 2,016,672 quarters, being, we believe, the largest quantity of wheat ever shipped in a single season from a single port.

During the three years ending with 1840, the average price of the best Odessa wheat, which, however, is inferior to English, was 34s. 6d. on the spot; and it is the better samples only that are fitted for distant voyages, and for our markets. Owing to the length and tediousness of the voyage from Odessa, and the risk of the grain heating on the passage, the charges attending its importation, including insurance, &c., amount to from 14s. to 158. a quarter. It is plain, therefore, that the Odessa wheat brought to England during the above three years must, speaking generally, have cost the importer about 50s. a quarter, exclusive of profit; and, supposing the price of the best wheat in Odessa to be reduced under a system of free intercourse to from 25s. to 30s. a quarter (its price in 1849), it could not be sold in London for less than from 408. to 45s. a quarter. And though in 1850 the imports of wheat from Southern Russia amounted to 572,446 quarters, in ordinary years they are usually much less. Constantinople, Genoa, Marseilles, and other Mediterranean ports, are the great markets for the wheat

of the Black Sea.

The shipments of grain, other than wheat from Odessa, are generally but inconsiderable. In 1847, 240,390 quarters rye were exported. Indian corn is raised in Bessarabia, but not in quantities to admit of any great exportation.

For farther details as to the corn trade of Southern Russia, and of the countries on the Lower Danube, see the articles ODESSA, TAGANROG, and GALACZ.

Both soft and hard wheat are exported from Odessa; but the former, which is by far the most abundant, is only brought to England. Despite the preference given to English wheat in this country, in the Mediterranean Odessa wheat is more esteemed, and fetches a higher price.

The hard wheat brought from the Black Sea comes principally from Taganrog. It is a very fine species of grain, being full 10 per cent. heavier than British wheat, with not more than half the bran: latterly, however, soft wheat is beginning to be exported. The hard wheat is used in Italy for making maccaroni and vermicelli, and things of that sort; very little of it has found its way to England.

The voyage from Odessa to Britain is of uncertain duration, but generally very long. It is essential to the importation of the wheat in a good condition, that it should be made during the winter months. When the voyage is made in summer, unless the wheat be very superior, and be shipped in exceedingly good order, it is almost sure to heat; and has sometimes, indeed, been injured to such a degree as to require to be dug

* A chetwert is about 5-8 bushels.