Individuals have not always been left to themselves to judge as to the expediency of sailing with or without convoy. The governments of most maritime states have thought proper, when they were engaged in hostilities, to oblige their subjects to place themselves under an escort of this sort, that the enemy might not be enriched by their capture. Acts to this effect were passed in this country during the American war and the late French war. The last of these acts (43 Geo. 3. c. 57.) enacted, that it should not be lawful for any ship belonging to any of his Majesty's subjects (except as therein provided) to depart from any port or place whatever, unless under such convoy as should be appointed for that purpose. The master was required to use his utmost endeavours to continue with the convoy during the whole voyage, or such part thereof as it should be directed to accompany his ship; and not to separate therefrom without leave of the commander, under very heavy pecuniary penalties. And in case of any ship departing without convoy contrary to the act, or wilfully separating therefrom, all insurances on the ship, cargo, or freight, belonging to the master, or to any other person directing or privy to such departure or separation, were rendered null and void. The customs officers were directed not to allow any ship that ought to sail with convoy to clear out from any place in the U. Kingdom for foreign parts, without requiring from the master, bond with one surety, with condition that the ship should not depart without convoy, nor afterwards desert or wilfully separate from it. The regulations of this act did not extend to ships not requiring to be registered, nor to those licensed to sail without convoy, nor to those engaged in the coasting trade, nor to those belonging to the East India Company, &c.

It is very common, during periods of war, to make sailing or departing with convoy a condition in policies of insurance. This, like other warranties in a policy, must be strictly performed. And if a ship warranted to sail with convoy, sail without it, the policy becomes void, whether this be imputable to any negligence on the part of the insured, or the refusal of government to appoint a convoy.

There are five things essential to sailing with convoy: viz. first, it must be with a regular convoy under an officer appointed by government; secondly, it must be from the place of rendezvous appointed by government; thirdly, it must be a convoy for the voyage; fourthly, the master of the ship must have sailing instructions from the commanding officer of the convoy; and fifthly, the ship must depart and continue with the convoy till the end of the voyage, unless separated by necessity.

With respect to the third of these conditions we may observe, that a warranty to sail with convoy generally means a convoy for the voyage; and it is not necessary to add the words "for the voyage" to make it so. Neither will the adding of these words in some instances, make the omission of them, in any case, the ground of a different construction. A warranty to sail with convoy does not, however, uniformly mean a convoy that is to accompany the ship insured the entire way from the port of departure to her port of destination; but such convoy as government may think fit to appoint as a sufficient protection for ships going the voyage insured, whether it be for the whole or only a part of the voyage.

Sailing instructions, referred to in the fourth condition, are written or printed directions delivered by the commanding officer of the convoy to the several masters of the ships under bis care, that they may understand and answer signals, and know the place of rendezvous appointed for the fleet in case of dispersion by storm, or by an enemy, &c. These sailing instructions are so very indispensable, that no vessel can have the full protection and benefit of convoy without them: hence, when, through the negligence of the master, they are not obtained, the ship is not said to have sailed with convoy; and a warranty in a policy of insurance to that effect is held not to be complied with. If, however, the master do all in his power to obtain sailing instructions, but is prevented from obtaining them by any insuperable obstacle, as the badness of the weather; or if they be refused by the commander of the convoy; the warranty in the policy is held to be complied with.

For further information as to convoy, see Abbot on the Law of Shipping, part iii. e. 3.; Marshall on Insurance, book i. c. 9. § 5., and the Act 43 Geo. 3. c. 57, &c. COPAIVA.

See BALSAM.

COPAL, improperly called gum copal, is a valuable and singular kind of resin, that naturally exudes from different large trees, and is imported partly from America, and partly from the East Indies. The best copal is hard and brittle, in rounded lumps of a moderate size, easily reducible to a fine powder, of a light lemon yellow colour, beautifully transparent, but often, like amber, containing parts of insects and other small extraneous bodies in its substance. Its specific gravity varies from 1045 to 1.139. It has neither the solubility in water common to gums, nor the solubility in alcohol common to resins, at least in any considerable degree. It may be dissolved by digestion in drying linseed oil, and other volatile menstrua. This solution forms a beautiful transparent varnish, which, when, properly applied, and slowly dried, is very hard and very durable.

Copal varnish was first discovered in France, and was long known by the name of vernis martin. It is applied to snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other utensils. It preserves and gives lustre to paintings; and contributes to restore the decayed colours of old pictures, by filling up cracks, and rendering the surface capable of reflecting light more uniformly. Copal is liable to be confounded with gum animé, when the latter is very clear and good. But it is of importance to distinguish between them, as the animé, though valuable as a varnish, is much less so than the finest copal; the varnish with the former being darker coloured, and not so hard. Besides the external appearance of each, which is pretty distinct to a practised eye, the solubility in alcohol furnishes a useful test, the animé being readily soluble in this fluid, while the copal is hardly affected by it; copal is also brittle between the teeth, whereas animé softens in the mouth. — (Rees's Cyclopædia; Ure's Dictionary, &c.)

The imports of gum animé and copal are not distinguished in the custom-house accounts. The entries of both for home consumption amounted, in 1842, to about 983 cwts. The duty was, in the same year, re duced from 6s. to Is. a cwt. Copal fetches in the London market from 31. to 31. 10s. a cwt.

COPENHAGEN, the capital of Denmark, on the E. coast of the island of Zealand, in the channel of the Baltic called the Sound; lat. 55° 41′ 4′′ N., lon. 12° 35′ 46′′ E. Population, in 1845, 126,787. It is a well-built, handsome city. In going into Copenhagen, the course is between the buoy on the Stubben Bank to the left, and the buoy on the Middle-grounds, and those in advance of the three Crown batteries on the right, W. S. W. by compass. From the three crowns to the roads the course is S. S. W. The water in the channel is from 6 to 4 fathoms deep; but it is narrow, and the navigation rather difficult. There is no obligation to take a pilot on board ; but if a vessel wish for one, she may heave to abreast of the battery, when he will come to her. Vessels not intending to come into harbour bring up in the roads, at from to mile from shore, in about 4 fathoms, the town bearing S. S. W. In the harbour, within the boom, the water is from 17 to 18 feet deep. Vessels in harbour load and unload alongside the quay. The anchorage in the roads is good and safe.

Money. Accounts are kept in rixdollars of 6 mares, or 96 skillings; the rixdollar being formerly worth about 4. Id. sterling. But in 1813, a new monetary system was adopted, according to which the new or Rigsbank dollar is worth 2. 34d., being half the value of the old specie dollar, and of the old current dollar. But the money generally used in commercial transactions is bank money, which is commonly at a heavy discount. The par of exchange, estimated by the Rigsbank dollar, would be 8 dollars 7-6 skillings per pound sterling.

Weights and Measures. The commercial weights are, 16 pounds 1 lispound; 20 lispound 1 shippound; 100 lbs. == 110 lbs. avoirdupois 131 lbs. Troy 101 lbs. of Amsterdam 103 of Hamburg.

The liquid measures are, 4 ankers = 1 ahm or ohm; 1 aħm 1 hogshead; 2 hogsheads=1 pipe; 2 pipes 1 quarter The anter 10 (very nearly) English wine gallons. A fuder of wine = 930 pots: and 100 pots = 25) wine gallons.

The dry measures are, 4 viertels 1 Scheffel; 8 scheffels = 1 toende or ton; 12 tons = 1 last 474 Winchester bushes. The last of oil, butter, herrings, and other oily substances should weigh 224 lbs. nett.

The measure of length is the Rhineland foot = 12} inches very nearly. The Danish ell = 2 feet; 100 ells = 684 English yards.

Trade of Copenhagen. This is not very considerable, and has latterly declined. Timber, pitch and tar are chiefly imported from Sweden and Norway; flax, hemp, masts, sail-cloth, and cordage, from Russia; West India produce, from the Danish and foreign West India islands; tobacco, from America; wines and brandy, from France: coal, earthenware, iron and steel, and salt, are the principal articles of direct importation from England. Of coal, we sent to Denmark (principally to Copenhagen), in 1849, 228,245 tons, and of salt, 545,265 bushels. Owing to the erroneous policy of the Danish government, which has attempted, at a great public loss, to raise and bolster up manufactures, the direct imports of woollens and cottons are inconsiderable. These articles are not, however, prohibited. Down to 1841 they were admitted on condition of their being stamped and put up to auction by the custom-house, which, after retaining 30 per cent. of the gross produce of the sale, paid over the surplus to the importer. In the above year, however, the duty, in imitation of the German plan, was ordered to be assessed, partly according to the description of the goods, and partly according to their weight; so that the existing duty varies on cotton goods, from 31. 15s. to 221. 10s. per 100 lbs. Danish (equal to 110 lbs. English); and on woollens, from 24. 16s. 3d. to 147, 1s. Sd. per 100 lbs. Danish. But, though advantageous in some respects, this change was mischievous in others; for while it facilitated the collection of the duties, and reduced those on the finer descriptions, it added materially to those on the coarser and most essential fabrics. Hence we need not be surprised that there is an extensive illicit importation of these articles by the Elbe and Holstein frontier. The exports consist principally of the produce of the soil, as corn, rape-seed, butter and cheese, beef and pork, horses and cattle, wool, hides and skins, bones, corn-brandy, &c. At an average of the seven years ending with 1839, the annual exports of corn from Denmark were— wheat, 140,989 imp. qrs.; rye, 127,521 do.; barley, 388,068 do.; and oats, 125,986 do. In 1849 we imported from Denmark 241,403 qrs. wheat, 668,515 do. barley, 249,246 do. oats, 77,777 do. rye, and 71,679 do. peas and beans. (See CORN LAWS.) We subjoin an

Account of the Quantities and Values of the principal Articles, the Produce of Denmark and he: Dependencies, exported from that Kingdom and the Duchies of Sleswick and Holstein, in 1847.

We have no means of ascertaining the proportion shipped from Copenhagen, but it was very considerable.

Of the vessels belonging to Denmark in the above year 281, of the burden of 29,260 tons, belonged to Copenhagen.

Colonial Trade-In the West Indies, the Danes possess the island of St. Croix, which, though small, is fertile, and well cultivated. All the ports of Denmark may send vessels thither, and import sugar or other produce, on payment of the duties. St. Croix produced in 1849, 17,711,733 lbs. sugar, and 654,804 gall. rum; but, owing to the dryness of the season, this was a very deficient crop. The produce of sugar in ordinary years may be estimated at about 25,000,000 lbs.

Since 1833, when the restrictions on the colonial trade were abolished, the exports of sugar from St. Croix to Denmark have materially diminished, large quantities being now sent from the island to. the U. States. The imports of colonial sugar may at present (4850) be estimated at about 10,000,000 lbs., and those of foreign sugar at about 12,000,000 lbs. About two thirds of the trade with the West Indies is engrossed by Copenhagen, and the rest by Flensburg. The settlements of Tranquebar and Serampore in the E. Indies were sold, in 1845, to the E. I. Company.

The trade to India and China, formerly a monopoly in the hands of a joint stock company, was opened to the public in 1840. Several vessels have since been fitted out for the trade; but it is doubtful, from the want of produce suitable for the Eastern markets, whether it can ever attain to any considerable importance.

Port Charges vary according as the vessel has come from this or the further side of Cape Finisterre, or from the Indian seas; as she is wholly, or only part loaded; and as she clears out with goods that have been in transitu, and are for the most part free of duty, or has on board a cargo of native produce subject to duty. On a ship of 300 tons belonging to a privileged nation from this side Cape Finisterre, unloading and loading mixed cargoes in Copenhagen, the different public charges, including Sound dues, brokerage, &c., would exceed 601; and from the further side of Cape Finisterre, the charges would be nearly 1001. When a ship is not fully loaded, lastage money and light dues are only charged in proportion to the cargo on board. Lastage money is not charged on ships outward bound, laden with transit goods, as tar, pitch, iron, &c. But notwithstanding these deductions, it is obvious that port charges are very heavy, and there can be no doubt that they are a material obstacle to the extension of trade. Commission on purchases is generally 2 per cent., and on sales, 3 per cent., including 1 per cent, del credere.

Citizenship. To enable a foreigner to trade as a merchant in Denmark, he must become a burgher, which costs about 1007, and it will require about 60%. more to free him from the obligation of serving in the militia. The obstacles in the way of a foreigner establishing himself in Denmark as a manufacturer are much greater, on account of the exclusive privileges enjoyed by the guilds or corporations into which the principal crafts or trades are divided.

Credit. Goods imported into Copenhagen are commonly sold on credit; 3 months is the term generally allowed on most sorts of goods, and in a few instances 6 months. The discount for ready money is 4 per cent. Bankruptcy is of rare occurrence.

Insurance. Marine assurance is effected, on liberal terms, by a company established in 1746. A good many risks are, however, insured at Amsterdam and Hamburg.

Careening, Ships' Stores, &c.- Copenhagen has good building yards, and is in all respects an eligible place for the repair of ships, and for supplying them with provisions.

Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles of Foreign and Colonial Produce imported into the United Kingdom from Denmark in 1849; and of the Quantities and Values of the principal Articles of British and Irish Produce exported to the same in 1849.

353,509

Statement of the Tares allowed by the Custom house at Copenhagen, on the principal Articles

of Importation.

4 per ct.

16

Ochre
Olive oil-

do.

4 per ct.

16

Pepper

12

2 lbs.

4

do.

Pimento-
Raisins -

2 lbs.
4-

16 per ct.

12

Rice

casks

12 lbs.

Cotton
Currants

Delft ware

Figs

All sorts of packages

do.

barrel

Bags of 100 lbs. and not exceed

150 lbs. and under

ing 150 lbs.

All kinds of packages.

Saltpetre
Soap, white
Sugar, raw

In casks

do.

Tares.

10 per ct.

18

20

40

2 lbs.

4 -

do.

do.

18 lbs.

12 lbs.

10 per ct

12

10

24 lbs.

4

2

10 per ct.

14

17

do.

12

do.

do.

3

General Remarks. On the whole, the commerce of Denmark used to be in a stationary state; a consequence partly of the peculiar circumstances under which the country is placed, and partly of the policy of government. The latter long exerted itself to bolster up a manufacturing interest, by laying oppressive duties on most species of manufactured articles. Even under the most favourable circumstances, such conduct, though it may benefit a few individuals, is sure to be productive of great national loss. But in the case of Denmark, the circumstances were such as to render the restrictive system peculiarly injurious. All, or nearly all, the branches of industry carried on in the kingdom were subject to the government of guilds or corporations; no person could engage in any line of business until he was authorised by its peculiar guild; and as the sanction of this body was rarely obtained without a considerable sacrifice, the real effect of the system was to fetter competition and improvement, and to perpetuate monopoly and routine. Even the Danish writers acknowledge that such was the influence of the regulations. "Nos ouvriers," say they, "sont chers, travaillent lentement, et souvent mal et sans goût, leur education est negligée. On ne les forme point à penser, et l'apprentif suit machinalement ce qu'il voit faire au maître.” —- (Catteau, Tableau des Etats Danois, tome ii. p. 260.) But within the last few years this system has been quite changed. Industry has been emancipated from many troublesome regulations, and moderate duties have been substituted for prohibitions. But, however favourably situated in other respects, it would be idle to expect that a country without waterfalls, and without coal, should be able to manufacture cottons, woollens, &c. at so cheap a rate as they may be imported from others enjoying greater natural facilities for their production. The staple business of Denmark, her agricultural and rural economy, has been most materially improved of late years; and, as already seen, her exports of raw produce are now of great value and importance.

The trade of the country suffers from the too great magnitude of the port dues and of the transit duties; and the Sound duties, being charged on native as well as foreign ships, operate as an inland duty on trade. Considerable improvements have, however, been effected in the commercial legislation of the country during the last dozen years, by the opening of the trade to the East and West Indies, and the abolition and reduction of other regulations and duties; and it may be fairly presumed that the benefits resulting from these measures will pave the way for the introduction of others of a similar character.

In compiling this article, we have consulted Oddy's European Commerce, pp. 330-369; Dictionnaire du Commerce (Ency. Méthodique, tome ii. pp. 3-16.); Catteau, Tableau des Etats Danois, tome ii. pp. 292-371.; the valuable Reports of Mr. M'Gregor, consul at Elsinore, &c.

COPPER (Ger. Kupfer; Du. Koper; Da. Kobber; Sw. Kopper; Fr. Cuivre ; It. Rame; Sp. Cobre; Port. Cobre; Rus. Mjed, Krasnoi mjed; Pol. Miedz; Lat. Cuprum; Arab. Nehass; Sans. Tamra), a well-known metal, so called from its having been first discovered, or at least wrought to any extent, in the island of Cyprus. It is of a fine red colour, and has a great deal of brilliancy. Its taste is styptic and nauseous; and the hands, when rubbed for some time on it, acquire a peculiar and disagreeable odour. It is harder than silver; its specific gravity varies according to its state, being,

when quite pure, near 9'000. Its malleability is great; it may be hammered out into leaves so thin as to be blown about by the slightest breeze. Its ductility is also considerable. Its tenacity is so great, that a copper wire 0·078 of an inch in diameter is capable of supporting 302-26 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. Its liability to oxidation from exposure to air or damp is its greatest defect. The rust with which it is then covered is known by the name of verdigris, and is one of the most active poisons. —( Thomson's Chemistry.)

If we except gold and silver, copper seems to have been more early known than any other metal. In the first ages of the world, before the method of working iron was discovered, copper was the principal ingredient in all domestic utensils and instruments of war. Even now it is applied to so many purposes, as to rank next, in point of utility, to iron.

Alloys of Copper are numerous and of great value. Those of tin are of most importance. Tin added to copper makes it more fusible, less liable to rust, or to be corroded by the air and other common substances, harder, denser, and more sonorous. In these respects the alloy has a real advantage over unmixed copper: but this is in many cases more than counterbalanced by the great brittleness which even a moderate portion of tin imparts; and which is a singular circumstance, considering that both metals are separately very malleable.

Copper alloyed with from 1 to 5 per cent. of tin is rendered harder than before; its colour is yellow, with a cast of red, and its fracture granular: it has considerable malleability. This appears to have been the usual composition of many of the ancient edged tools and weapons, before the method of working iron was brought to perfection. The xaλzes of the Greeks, and, perhaps the as of the Romans, was nothing else. Even their copper coins contain a mixture of tin. The ancients did not, in fact, possess (as has been often contended) any peculiar process for hardening copper, except by adding to it a small quantity of tin. An alloy in which the tin is from 01 to of the whole is hard, brittle, but still a little malleable, close grained, and yellowish white. When the tin is as much as of the mass, it is entirely brittle; and continues so in every higher proportion. The yellowness of the alloy is not entirely lost till the tin amounts to 0:3 of the whole.

Copper (or sometimes copper with a little zinc), alloyed with as much tin as will make from about 0·1 to of the whole, forms an alloy, which is principally employed for bells, brass cannon, bronze statues, and various other purposes. Hence it is called bronze or bell metal; and is excellently fitted for the uses to which it is applied, by its hardness, density, sonorousness, and fusibility. For canuon, a lower proportion of tin is commonly used. According to Dr. Watson, the metal employed at Woolwich consists of 100 parts of copper and from 8 to 12 of tin; hence it retains some little malleability, and, therefore, is tougher than it would be with a larger portion of tin. This alloy being more sonorous than iron, brass guns give a louder report than iron guns. A common alloy for bell metal is 80 parts of copper and 20 of tin: some artists add to these ingredients zinc, antimony, and silver, in small proportions; all of which add to the sonorousness of the compound. (See BELL METAL.)

When, in an alloy of copper and tin, the latter metal amounts to about of the mass, the result is a beautiful compound, very hard, of the colour of steel, and susceptible of a very fine polish. It is well adapted for the reflection of light for optical purposes; and is therefore called speculum metal. Besides the above ingredients, it usually contains a little arsenic, zinc, or silver. The application of an alloy similar to the above, to the construction of mirrors, is of great antiquity, being mentioned by Pliny; who says, that formerly the best mirrors were reckoned those of Brundusium, of tin and copper mixed (stanno et ære mistis). — (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiii. §9.)

For the alloys of copper with zinc, see the articles BRASS, PINCHBECK. See, also, Thomson's Chemistry; Rees's Cyclopædia; Dr. Watson's Chemical Essays, vol. iv., &c.

ไก

British Copper Trade. - Great Britain has various copper mines, in Cornwall, Devonshire, Wales, &c., but particularly in the first. Though known long before, the Cornish copper mines were not wrought with much spirit till last century. From 1726 to 1735, they produced at an average about 700 tons a year of pure copper. During the ten years from 1766 to 1775, they produced, at an average, 2,650 tʊns. 1798, the produce exceeded 5,000 tons; and it now amounts to from 11,000 to 12,500 tons, worth, at 1007. a ton, from 1,100,000Z. to 1,250,000. sterling! In 1768, the famous mines in the Parys mountain, near Amlwch, in Anglesea, were discovered. The supplies of ore furnished by them were for a long time abundant beyond all precedent; but for many years past the productiveness of the mine has been declining, and it now yields comparatively little copper. At present the mines in Anglesea, and other parts of Wales, yield from 1,750 to 2,000 tons of copper; those of Devonshire yield about 500 tons; the quantity produced in the other parts of England being quite inconsiderable. The Irish mines produce about 500 tons. Those of Scotland never were productive, and have been almost entirely abandoned. The entire produce of the copper mines of the empire may, therefore, be estimated at present at from 14,000 to 15,000 tons.

In consequence of the greatly increased supplies of copper that were thus obtained, England, instead of being, as formerly, dependent on foreigners for the greater part of her supplies of this valuable metal, became, previously to 1793, one of the principal markets for the supply of others. And notwithstanding the vastly increased demand for copper during the war for the sheathing of ships and other purposes, the exports continued to increase and the imports to diminish; the greater productiveness of the Cornish mines having sufficed not only to balance the increased demand, but also to make up for the falling off in the supplies from Anglesea.

Owing to the want of coal in Cornwall, the ores are not smelted on the spot, but are, for the most part, sent to Swansea; it being found cheaper to carry the ores to the coal than the contrary.

The East Indies and China, France, the U. States, and Italy, are the great markets for British copper. Thus, in 1842, of the total quantity exported, amounting, as seen above, to 194,061 cwts., 99,990 went to the East Indies and China, 21,292 to France, 16,378 to the U. States, and 10,765 to Italy.-(Parl. Paper No. 237. Sess. 1843.)

Foreign Copper.-Copper ores are abundant in Sweden, Russia, Persia, Japan, Cuba, Chill, Colombia, &c. Near Fahlun, in the province of Dalecaria, in Sweden, is the celebrated copper mine of the same name, supposed to have been wrought nearly 1,000 years. For a long time it was extremely productive, yielding, towards the beginning of the seventeenth century, an annual produce of about 8,000,000 lbs. of pure metai; but it has since greatly declined; and it is most probable that at no distant period it will be wholly abandoned. (Thomson's Travels in Sweden, p. 221. There are copper mines in other parts of Sweden; but the entire produce of copper in that country does not at present exceed from 750 to 800 tons, of a quality inferior to that of England. The produce of the copper mines in the government of Olonetz, in Russia, has been estimated at 210,000 poods, or 3,375 tons (Eng.) a year. (Schnitzler, Essai d'une Statistique Générale, &c. p. 41.) The copper mines of Japan are said to be among the richest in the world. The Dutch and Chinese export considerable quantities of their produce, which is spread all over the East, and is regularly quoted in the price currents of Canton, Calcutta, and Singapore. It is uniformly met with in the shape of bars or ingots; and when the copper of S. America is worth in the