East India Company's territories and Ceylon, 178,008 lbs. from the Philippine Islands, 63,071 from the Western coast of Africa, and 38,766 from China. Cassia was quoted in the London markets, in February 1843, at from 50s, to 70s. a cwt. in bond. 2. Cassia Buds, the dried fruit or berry of the tree (Laurus cassia) which yields the bark described in the previous article. They bear some resemblance to a clove, but are smaller, and, when fresh, have a rich cinnamon flavour They should be chosen round, fresh, and free from stalk and dirt. Cassia buds are the produce of China, The imports of all sorts of cassia from Canton in 1842 into the United Kingdom amounted to 276,117 lbs. (Milburn's Orient. Com.; Anglo-Chinese Kalendar; and Parl. Paper No. 257. Sess. 1843.) 3. Cassia Fistula (Fr. Casse; Ger. Rhonkasie; It. Polpa di cassia; Lat. Cassiæ pulpa; Arab. Khyar sheber) is a tree which grows in the East and West Indies, and Egypt (Cassia fistula Lin.). The fruit is a woody, dark brown pod, about the thickness of the thumb, and nearly 2 feet in length. Those brought to this country come principally from the West Indies, packed in casks and cases; but a superior kind is brought from the East Indies, and is easily distinguished by its smaller smooth pod, and by the greater blackness of the pulp. For details as to its importation, &c., see below. Cassia Senna, See SENNA. Account, specifying the Quantities of Cassia Lignea imported into, exported from, and entered for Consumption in the United Kingdom, with the Amount and Rate of Duty on the same, during each of the 13 Years, ending with 1842. Average quantity of cassia buds imported into the United Kingdom in each of the above thirteen years, 40,231 lbs. 2,103 lbs. Average quantity of cassia fistula imported into the United Kingdom in each of these years, 9,968 lbs. CASTOR (Fr. Castoreum; Ger. Kastoreunt; It. Castoro; Sp. Castoreo), the produce of the beaver. In the inguinal region of this animal are found four bags, a large and a small one on each side: in the two large ones there is contained a softish, greyish yellow, or light brown substance, which, on exposure to the air, becomes dry and brittle, and of a brown colour. This is castor. It has a heavy but somewhat aromatic smell, not unlike musk; and a bitter, nauseous, and subacrid taste. The best comes from Russia; but of late years it has been very scarce; and all that is now found in the shops is the produce of Canada. The goodness of castor is determined by its sensible qualities; that which is black is insipid, inodorous, oily, and unfit for use. Castor is said to be sometimes counterfeited by a mixture of some gummy and resinous substances; but the fraud is easily detected, by comparing the smell and taste with those of real castor. — (Thomson's Dispensatory.) CASTOR OIL (Fr. Huile du Ricin; Ger. Rizinusohl; It. Olio di Ricino; Sp. Ricinsoel) is obtained from the seeds of the Ricinus communis, or Palma Christi, an annual plant found in most tropical countries, and in Greece, the south of Spain, &c. The oil is separated from the seeds either by boiling them in water, or by subjecting them to the action of the press. It is said, that though the largest quantity of oil may be procured by the first method, it is less sweet, and more apt to become rancid, than that procured by expression, which, in consequence, is the process now most commonly followed. Good expressed castor oil is nearly inodorous and insipid; but the best leaves a slight sensation of acrimony in the throat after it is swallowed. It is thicker and heavier than the fat oils, being viscid, transparent, and colourless, or of a very pale straw colour. That which is obtained by boiling the seeds has a brownish hue; and both kinds, when they become rancid, thicken, deepen in colour to a reddish brown, and acquire a hot, nauseous taste. It is very extensively employed in the materia medica as a cathartic, (Thomson's Dispensatory.) The duty of 1s. 3d. per cwt. on castor oil entered for home consumption produced in 1842, 2521. 9s. Id., showing that the entries had amounted to 452,387 lbs. Of the total quantity imported in 1841, amounting to $71,136 lbs., no fewer than 869,947 lbs. were brought from the East India Company's territories and Ceylon. East India castor oil was worth in 1843, in the London market, from 4d. to 8d. per lb. CATECHU (Fr. Cachou; Ger. Kaschu; Hind. Cut; Mal. Gambir), a brown astringent substance, formerly known by the name of Terra Japonica, because supposed to be a kind of earth. It is, however, a vegetable substance obtained from two plants; viz. the Mimosa, or more correctly the Acacia catechu, and the Uncaria gambir. The first of these is a tree from 20 to 30 feet high, found in abundance in many of the forests of India, from 16° of lat. up to 30°. The places most remarkable for its production are the Burmese territories; a large province on the Malabar coast called the Concan; and the forests skirting the northern part of Bengal, under the hills which divide it from Nepaul. The catechu is obtained from this tree by the simple process of boiling the heart of the wood for a few hours, when it assumes the look and consistency of tar. The substance hardens by cooling; is formed into small balls or squares; and being dried in the sun, is fit for the market. The price to the first purchaser in the Concan is about 15s, a cwt. According to Dr. Davy, who analysed it, the specific gravity of Concan catechu is 1.39; and that of Pegu, 1·28. The taste of this substance is astringent, leaving behind a sensation of sweetness; it is almost wholly soluble in water. Of all the astringent substances we know, catechu appears to contain the largest portion of tannin. According to Mr. Purkis, 1 lb. is equivalent to 7 or 8 lbs. of oak bark for tanning leather. From 200 grs. of Concan catechu, Dr. Davy procured 109 of tannin, 68 of extractive matter, 13 of mucilage, and 10 of earths and other impurities: the same quantity of Pegu catechu afforded 97 grs. of tannin, 75 of extract, 16 of mucilage, and 14 of impurities. The uncaria gambir is a scandent shrub, extensively cultivated in all the countries lying on both sides of the Straits of Malacca; but chiefly in the small islands at their eastern extremity. The catechu is in this case obtained by boiling the leaves and inspissating the juice; a small quantity of crude sago being added, to give the mass consistency: it is then dried in the sun, and being cut like the Concan catechu into small squares, is ready for use. There is a great consumption of this article throughout all parts of India as a masticatory; it forms an ingredient in the compound of betel pepper, areca nut, and lime, which is in almost universal use. Catechu may be purchased at the Dutch settlement of Rhio, or at Malacca, in the Straits of Singapore, at the rate of about 10s. a cwt. Large quantities of it are imported, under the corrupted name of cutch, into Calcutta from Pegu. From Bombay a considerable quantity is annually imported into China. The quantity of catechu, under the name of gambir, produced in Rhio by the Chinese settlers, amounts to about 4,600 tons a year, about 2,000 of which are exported for the consumption of Java; the rest being sent to China, Cochin China, and other neighbouring countries. (See Ainslie's Materia Indica; Ure's Dictionary; Singapore Chronicle; Buchanan's Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar; Bell's Review of the external Commerce of Bengal.) CAT'S EYE, a mineral of a beautiful appearance, brought from Ceylon. Its colours are grey, green, brown, red, of various shades. Its internal lustre is shining, its fracture imperfectly conchoidal, and it is translucent. From a peculiar play of light, arising from white fibres interspersed, it has derived its name. The French call the appearance chatoyant. It scratches quartz, is easily broken, and resists the blowpipe. It is set by the jewellers as a precious stone. CAT SKINS. The skin or fur of the cat, is used for a variety of purposes, but is principally dyed and sold as false sable. It appears from evidence taken before a late Committee of the House of Commons, that it is a common practice in London to decoy the animal and kill it for the sake of its skin. The fur of the wild cat is, however, far more valuable than that of the domestic cat. The wild cat skins imported into this country are brought almost wholly from the territories of the Hudson's Bay Company. The animal from which they are taken is a good deal larger than the English wild cat, and is sometimes called the loup cervier, or Canadian lynx. It is very courageous. an average about 40,000 cat-skins are annually imported, of which more than a half are retained for home consumption. At CATTLE, a collective term applied to designate all those quadrupeds that are used either as food for man, or in tilling the ground. By neat or horned cattle is meant the two species included under the names of the ox (Bos) and the buffalo (Bubulus); but as the latter is hardly known in this country, it is the former only that we have here in view. The raising and feeding of cattle, and the preparation of the various products which they yield, have formed, in all countries emerged from the savage state, an important branch of industry. It would be quite inconsistent with the objects and limits of this work, to enter into any details with respect to the different breeds of cattle raised in this or other countries. They are exceedingly various. In Great Britain they have been vastly improved, both in the weight of carcase, the quality of the beef, and the abundance of the milk, by the extraordinary attention that has been given to the selection and crossing of the best breeds, according to the objects in view. This sort of improvement began about the middle of last century, or rather later, and was excited and very much forwarded by the skill and enterprise of two individuals— Mr. Bakewell of Dishley, and Mr. Culley of Northumberland. The success by which their efforts were attended roused a spirit of emulation in others; and the rapid growth of commerce and manufactures since 1760 having occasioned a corresponding increase in the demand for butcher's meat, improved systems of breeding, and improved breeds, have been very generally introduced. But the improvement in the size and condition of cattle has not been alone owing to the circumstances now mentioned. Much of it is certainly to be ascribed to the great improvement that has been made in their feeding. The introduction and universal extension of the turnip and clover cultivation has had, in this respect, a most astonishing influence, and has wonderfully increased the food of cattle, and consequently the supply of butcher's meat It was stated in the First Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Waste Lands (printed in 1795), that cattle and sheep had, at an average, increased in size and weight about a fourth part since 1732; but there are strong grounds for supposing that the increase had been much more considerable than is represented by the committee. According to an estimate of Dr. Davenant in 1710, the average weight of the nett carcase of black cattle was only 370 lbs., of calves 50 lbs., and of sheep only 28 lbs. ; but according to Sir F. M. Eden (Hist. of the Poor, vol. iii. Appen. p. 88.) and Mr. Middleton (Agric. of Middlesex, 2d ed. p. 541.), the average nett weight of the carcase of bullocks killed in London might be taken, about the end of the last or the beginning of this century, at 800 lbs., calves at 140 lbs., sheep at 80 lbs., and lambs at 50 lbs. Consumption of Butcher's Meat in London. - The number of head of cattle, sheep, and lambs, sold in Smithfield market, each year since 1732, has been as follows: Years. Cattle. Sheep. Years. Cattle. Sheep. Years. Cattle. Sheep. Years. Cattle. Sheep. 1816 120,439 968,560 83,894 590,970 1736 | 87,606 | 587,420 1737 1738 87,010 589,470 1732 76,210 | 514,700 1760 1733 80,169 | 555,050 1761 1734 78,810 | 566,910 1762 1735 88,594 622,210 1788 92,829 679,100 102,831 ! 772,160 1790 1763 80,851 | 653,110 || 1791 1764 75,168 556,360 1792 89.862 607,330 1763 81,630 537,000 1793 1766 75,534 574,790 || 1794 1739 86,787 568,980 1767 1817 1818 138,047 963,250 1819 135,226 949,900 1820 132,933 947,990 1821 129,125 1,107,230 719,420 1822 142,043 1,340,160 77,324 574,050 1795 131,092 745,640 1823 149,552 | 1,264,920 79,660 626,170 1796 117,152 758,840 1824 163,615 1,239,720 82,131 642,910 1797 108,377 693,510 1825 156.985 1.130,310 86,890 649,090 1798 107,470 753,010 1826 143,460 1,270,530 93,573 631,860 1799 122,086 834,400 1827 138,363 1335,100 89,503 609,540 1800 125,073 842,210 1828 147,698 1,288,460 90,133 609,740 1801 134,546 760,560 1829 158,313 1,240,300 1802126,389 743,470 1830 159,907 | 1,287,070 93,581 623,950 1803 117,551 787,430 1831 148,168 1,189,010 1748 67,681 | 610,060 1776 98,372 671,700 1804 113,019 903,940 1832 166,224 1,364,160 1749 72.706 | 624,220 1777 93,714 714,870 1805 125,043 912,410 1833 152,093 1,167,820 1750 70,765 656,340 1778 97,360 658,540 1806 120,250 858,570 1834 162,485 1,237,360 1751 69,589 631,890 1779 97,352 676,540 1807 134,326 924,030 1752 73,708 642,100 1780 102,383 706,850 1808144,042 | 1,015,280 1753 75,252 648,440 1781 102,543 743,330 1809 137,600 989,250 1754 70,437 631,350 1782 101,176 728,970 1810 132,155 962,750 1838 183,362 1,403,400 1755 74,290 647,100 1783 101,840 701,610 1811 125,012 966,400 1839 180,780 1,360,250 1756 77,257 624,710 1784 98,143 616,110 1812 133,854 953.630 1840 1757 82,612 | 574,960 1785 99,047 641,470 1813 137,770 891,240 1841 1758 84,252 550,930 1786 92,270 665,910 1814 135,071 870.880 1842 86,439 | 582,260 1787 94,946 668,570 1815 124,948 962,840 93,269 693,700 129,888 1,044,710 170,325 1,381,540 The number of fatted calves, exclusive of sucklers, of which no account is taken, sold annually in Smithfield from 1821 inclusive, has been as follows: ~~ The contract prices of butcher's meat per cwt. at Greenwich Hospital, since 1730, have been as below: We suspect, from what we have heard from practical men of great experience, that the weights assigned by Sir F. M. Eden and Mr. Middleton to the cattle sold in Smithfield were, at the time when their estimate was framed, decidedly in excess: but the great improvements that have since been made in the breeding and feeding of cattle in all parts of the empire, have materially increased their average size; so that the above weights are now, we have been well assured, not far from the mark. In order, however, to be within bounds, we shall take the nett weight of the cattle at 750 lbs. ; and supposing this and the other estimates to be nearly right, we should be able, provided we knew the respective numbers of sheep and lambs, to estimate the total quantity of butcher's meat furnished for London by Smithfield market, exclusive of hogs and pigs. Sheep and lambs are not, however, distinguished in the returns; but it is known that the former are to the latter nearly as 3 to 1; so that we may estimate the average weight of the sheep and lambs at about 70 lbs. This quantity, estimated at the average price of 6d., would cost 5,713,5587. 10s.; at 8d. it would cost 7,618,0781 But exclusive of the above, or of the beef properly so called, a large portion of the offal, including the head and tongue, heart, tripe, fat, &c., is used as food. A part of the cattle sold at Smithfield go to supply the towns in the vicinity; but, on the other hand, many cattle are sold in the adjoining towns, and slaughtered for the use of London, of which no account is taken. We have reason to think that the latter quantity rather exceeds the former; but, supposing that they mutually balance each other, the above quantity of 228,542,340 lbs. may be regarded as forming the annual supply of butcher's meat at present required for London; exclusive, however, of the offal used as food, and of hogs, pigs, suckling calves, &c., and exclusive also of bacon, hams, and salted provisions brought from a distance. The quantities thus omitted from the account are very large indeed; and since the introduction of steam navigation great numbers of cattle and sheep are killed in Scotland and other distant parts of the empire, the carcases of which are sent up for sale in the London market. We have no means of forming any correct conclusion on such a subject, but we are inclined to think that the carcases so sent up, added to the offal used as food, and the hogs killed in town, may be considered as fully equivalent to the butcher's meat used in the victualling of ships. On this hypothesis there will remain 228,542,340 lbs. of butcher's meat for the supply of the metropolis, which, taking the population at 1,870,127, gives 122 lbs. for the consumption of every individual, exclusive of bacon, hams, and salted provisions, and, also, of poultry. This, though not nearly so great as has been sometimes represented *, is, we believe, a larger consumption of animal food than takes place any where else by the same number of individuals. + According to M. Chabrol, the consumption of butcher's meat in Paris amounts to between 85 lbs. and 86 lbs. for each individual. At Brussels the consumption is a little greater, being supposed to average 89 lbs. each individual; being rather more than 3 lbs. above the mean of Paris, and 33 lbs. under the mean of London. In estimating the weights of the animals killed in country towns, a lower standard must be adopted than that taken for London; first, because the largest and finest cattle are brought to the metropolis; and secondly, because a very large proportion of the calves killed in country towns are sucklers, which are excluded from the London accounts. The following Table, drawn up from the Reports of the Manchester Statistical Society, shows the Consumption of Butcher's Meat in Manchester and its Environs in 1836, the Population being estimated at 343,500. The consumption of butcher's meat in Glasgow is about the same, compared with the population, as in Manchester. And this statement, taken in connection with the fact Mr. Middleton (Agriculture of Middlesez, p. 643.) estimates the consumption of animal food in London, exclusive of fish and poultry, at 234 lbs. a year for every individual! And he further estimates the total average annual expense incurred by each inhabitant of the metropolis, for all sorts of animal food, at 81. 88.! In the former edition of this work we inadvertently deducted the offal from the nett instead of the gross weight of the animals. This blunder was soon after brought forward in the Dictionnaire du Commerce to show that the weight of cattle slaughtered in Paris was greater than that of those killed in London; and that the consumption of animal food was, also, greater in the former than in the latter ! that, so late as 1760, the slaughter of bullocks for the supply of the public market was unknown in Glasgow, sets the wonderful improvement that has since taken place in the food of the Scotch people in the most striking point of view. Previously to 1780 it was customary in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and the principal Scotch towns, for families to purchase in November what would now be reckoned a small half-fed cow or ox, the salted carcase of which was the only butcher's meat they tasted throughout the year. In the smaller towns and country districts this practice prevailed till the present century; but it is now everywhere abandoned. We believe, indeed, that there has never been, in any country, a more rapid increase in the quantity, or a greater improvement in the quality, of the food brought to market, than has taken place in Scotland since 1770. In so far as respects butcher's meat, this has been occasioned partly by the growing numbers and opulence of all classes, and partly by the vast increase in the food of cattle consequent to the introduction of green crops, and of an improved system of cultivation. (See BREAD.) The introduction of steam navigation, and the improved means of communication by railroads and otherwise, has already had, and will no doubt continue to have, a material influence over the supply of butcher's meat. Owing to the difficulty and expense of their conveyance, cattle could not formerly be conveniently fattened at any very considerable distance from the great markets; but steam navigation has gone far to remove this difficulty. Instead of selling their cattle, lean or half-fed, to the Norfolk graziers, by whom they were fattened for the London market, the producers, in various districts of Scotland, now fatten them at home, either sending the live animals or the carcases by steam to London, Liverpool, &c. This practice is indirectly as well as directly advantageous to the farmer, inasmuch as it enables him to turn his green crops to better account, and to raise larger supplies of manure. The same practice is also extending in Ireland; and will, no doubt, spread itself over every part of the country where feeding can be carried on, that has the required facility of transport. Exclusive of the cattle raised in Great Britain, we import considerable supplies of beef and of live cattle from Ireland. Account of the Number of Cows and Oxen, and of the Quantities of Beef, imported into Great Britain from Ireland, from 1801: In 1825 the trade between Great Britain and Ireland was placed on the footing of a coasting trade, so that there are no means of continuing this account to a later date; but for further particulars, the reader is referred to Liverpool, art. Docks: for an account of the sales of cattle at the great fair of Ballinasloe, see FAIRS AND MARKETS. Number of Head of Cattle in Great Britain. It would, on many accounts, be very desirable to have an accurate estimate of the number and value of the stock of cattle in Great Britain, and of the proportion annually killed and made use of; but owing to the little attention that has been paid to such subjects in this country, where every sort of statistical knowledge is at a very low ebb, there are no means of arriving at any conclusions that can be depended upon. The following details may not, however, be unacceptable. Arthur Young has given, both in his Eastern and Northern Tours, estimates of the number and value of the different descriptions of stock in England. The greatest aiscrepancy, unaccompanied by a single explanatory sentence, exists between them; but there can be no doubt that the following estimate (Eastern Tour, vol. iv. p. 456. ), though, perhaps, rather under the mark, is infinitely nearer the truth than the other, which is about twice as great: — Now, taking this number at the round sum of 3,000,000, and adding a third to it for the increase since 1770, and 1,100,000 for the number of cattle in Scotland (General Report of Scotland, iii. Addenda, p. 6.), we shall have 5,100,000 as the total head of cattle of all sorts in Great Britain. The common estimate is, that about a fourth part T |