20 per cent. laid aside annually for replacement of the boats, or loss on the capital therein vested, and a considerable sum laid aside for accidents and replacement of the horses, is 7007. some odd shillings; or, taking the number of working days to be 312 annually, something under 21. 2s. 4d. per day, or about 11d. per mile. The actual cost of carrying from 80 to 100 persons a distance of 30 miles (the length of the Liverpool railway), at a velocity of nearly 10 miles an hour, on the Paisley Canal, one of the most curved, narrow, and shallow la Britain, is therefore just 17. 78. 6d sterling. Such are the facts, and, incredible as they may appear, they are facts which no one who inquires can possibly doubt."

Boats on this principle have since been established on a great many British canals, and on the Grand and Royal Canals in Ireland.

(20.) Profits of Canals. - It is a well-known fact, that canals, at an average, and allowing for the length of time that must elapse from the first outlay of capital before they yield any return, are not very productive. When, indeed, they connect places that have an extensive intercourse, and when no very extraordinary difficulties have to be surmounted in their construction, they most commonly yield very large profits: but, generally speaking, this does not appear to be the case; and, on the whole, they seem to have been more beneficial to the public than to their projectors.

It is customary to insert clauses in the acts authorising canals to be cut, limiting the charge which the proprietors shall be entitled to impose upon the goods conveyed by them. But we think that the dividend ought also to be limited; and that it should be stipulated that whatever a moderate toll yielded over and above defraying this dividend, and providing for the repair of the canal, should be accumulated as a fund in order to buy up the stock of the canal, so that the toll may ultimately be reduced to such a sum as may suffice merely to meet the necessary repairs. We are not aware that any good objection could be made to a plan of this sort; and had it been adopted in this country, there are several instances in which it would have been very advantageous for the public. When the canal of Languedoc was completed, the most likely method, it was found, of keeping it in constant repair, was to make a present of the tolls to Riquet the engineer. These tolls constitute," says Dr. Smith, " a very large estate to the different branches of the family of that gentleman; who have, therefore, a great interest to keep the work in constant repair. But had these tolls been put under the management of commissioners, who had no such interest, they might, perhaps, have been dissipated in ornamental and unnecessary expenses, while the most essential parts of the work were allowed to go to ruin." Dr. Smith ought, however, to have mentioned that Riquet advanced a fourth part of the entire sum laid out upon the canal (Dutens, Navigation Intérieure de la France, tom. i. p. 119, &c.); and that officers were appointed by the crown to see that the tolls were not rendered oppressive, and the canal kept in good order. At the Revolution, most part of the property of the canal was confiscated; but at the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, such parts of the confiscated property as had not been sold were restored to the successors of M. Riquet, who have at this mo. ment the principal management of the canal.

The accompanying map of the canals, railroads, &c. of Great Britain and Ireland, has been executed with great care and attention; and will, we hope, be found to be a valuable acquisition. Those who wish to see them laid down on a larger scale, are referred to the magnificent six-sheet map, published by J. Walker, Esq. of Wakefield, and to other maps of the same kind. "An Historical Account of the Navigable Rivers and Canals, &c. of Great Britain," in 4to., attached to Mr. Walker's map by way of Index, is an accurate and useful publication.

CANARY SEED. See SEED.

CANDLE (Ger. Lichter, Kerzen; Du. Kaarzen; Fr. Chandelle; It. Candelle; Sp. and Port. Velas; Rus. Sujetschi; Lat. Candela), a taper of tallow, wax, or spermaceti, the wick of which is commonly of several threads of cotton spun and twisted together.

Dr. Ure gives the following table, as containing the result of certain experiments he had made, in order to determine the relative intensity of the light, and the duration of different sorts of tallow candles.

"A Scotch mutchkin," says Dr. Ure, "or of a gallon of good seal oil, weighs 6.010 gr., or 13 oz. avoirdupois, and lasts in a bright Argand lamp 11 hours 44 minutes. The weight of oil it consumes per hour is equal to 4 times the weight of tallow in candles 8 to the pound, and 3 times the weight of tallow in candles 6 to the pound. But its light being equal to that of 5 of the latter candles, it appears from the above table, that 2 lbs. weight of oil, value 9d. in an Argand, are equivalent in illumin

ating power to 3 lbs. of tallow candles, which cost about 2s. The larger the flame in the above candles, the greater the economy of light.'

Until 1831, when it was repealed, candles were, for a lengthened period, subject to an excise duty; and their consumption was, in consequence, pretty exactly ascertained.

An Account of the Rates of Duty separately charged on Tallow, Wax, and Spermaceti Candles, the Number of Pounds' Weight of each Sort produced, and the Total annual Nett Revenue derived from Candles, in Great Britain, in each Year since 1820. — (Parl. Paper No. 468. Sess. 1830.)

CANDLE, Sale or Auction by Inch of, is when a small piece of candle being lighted, the bystanders are allowed to bid for the merchandise that is selling: but the moment the candle is out, the commodity is adjudged to the last bidder.

CANELLA ALBA (Fr. Canelle blanche; Ger. Weisser Zimmet; It. Canella bianca; Sp. Canella blanca; Lat. Canella alba), the inner bark of the Canella alba, a tree growing in the West Indies. It is brought to this country packed in casks and cases, in long pieces, some rolled in quills and others flat; the quilled sort is considerably thicker than cinnamon, and the flat nearly of an inch in thickness. The quilled pieces are yellow on both sides; the flat pieces are yellow on the outside and pale brown within. The odour of both kinds, when fresh broken, is aromatic, something like a mixture of cloves and cinnamon; and the taste slightly bitter, and extremely warm and pungent. CANES. See BAMBOO, RATTANS.

CANNON, CANNONS (Du. Kanonen; Fr. Canons; Ger. Kanonen; It. Cannoni ; Pol. Dziala; Por. Canhoes; Rus. Puschki; Sp. Canones; Sw. Kanon), a kind of long hollow engines for throwing iron, lead, or stone balls by the force of gunpowder. They are commonly made of iron, but frequently also of a mixture of copper, tin, and brass, They are either cast hollow, or solid and then bored; those made in the latter way being very superior. Brass cannons, or cannons made of mixed metal, are said not to be so well calculated for hard service, or quick and continued firing, as those made of iron. The proportions of the ingredients used in making the former do not differ materially in different countries, though they rarely coincide. To 240 lbs. of metal fit for casting, we commonly put 68 lbs. of copper, 52 lbs. of brass, and 12 lbs. of tin. To 4,200 lbs. of metal fit for casting, the Germans put 3,687 lbs. of copper, 2041 lbs. of brass, and 3073 lbs. of tin. Others, again, use 100 lbs. of copper, 6 lbs. of brass, and 9 lbs. of tin; and others, 100 lbs. of copper, 10 pounds of brass, and 15 lbs. of tin.

It seems to be the general opinion that cannon were first made use of in 1336 or 1338; but Don Antonio de Capmany has produced some statements, which render it almost certain that some sort of artillery was used by the Moors in Spain so early as 1312.-(Questiones Criticas, p. 181, &c.) Cannons were certainly used by the English in 1347 at the siege of Calais, and by the Venetians at Chioggia in 1366, and in their wars with the Genoese in 1379 and 1380. The Turks employed them at the sieges of Constantinople, in 1394 and 1453. When first introduced, they were for the most part very heavy and unwieldy, and threw balls of an enormous size: they were, however, owing to their frequently bursting, about as dangerous to those using them as to their opponents. There is a valuable article on the construction and history of cannons in Rees's Cyclopædia; but it was published previously to the appearance of Capmany's work referred to above.

CANTHARIDES, OR SPANISH FLY (Fr. Cantharides, Mouches d'Espagne; Ger. Spanische Fliegen; It. Cantarelle; Lat. Cantharis; Rus. Hischpanskie muchi; Sp. Cantaridas). This insect is found on a variety of shrubs in Spain, Italy, France, &c. Those used in this country are imported partly from Sicily, but principally from Astracan, packed in casks and small chests. The best are of a lively fresh colour, a small size, and not mouldy. They are frequently adulterated with the Melolontha vítis; but this is distinguishable by its form, which is squarer than the cantharis, and by its black feet. If they be properly dried and protected from the air, they may be kept for a very long period. (Thomson's Dispensatory.)

CANTON, one of the greatest emporiums in the East, ranking, as a port of trade, either before, or immediately after, Calcutta, in the province of Quantong, in China; being, previously to 1843, the only place in that empire open by authority to European traders: lat. 23° 7′ 10′′ N., lon. 113° 14′ E.

Canton stands on the eastern bank of the Pekiang River, which flows from the interior in a navigable stream of 300 miles to this city, where it is rather broader than the Thames at London Bridge; falling, after an additional course of 80 miles, into the southern sea of China. Near its junction with the sea, it is called by foreigners Bocca Tigris. The town is surrounded by a thick wall, partly of stone and partly of brick, and is divided into 2 parts by another wall running east and west. The northern division is called the Old, and the southern the New City. In the old city is the Mantchou or Tartar general, with a garrison of Mantchou troops under his command. The lieutenant-governor or Fooyuen's office is also in the old city, but the governor and Hoppo (principal customs officer) reside in the new city, not far from the river.

All foreign commerce is conducted in the south-west suburb, where the foreign factories are situated; and which, with the other suburbs, is probably not less populous than the city itself. The residence of Europeans is confined to a very small space, on the banks of the river; which might, however, be as pleasant as a crowded mercantile place can well be, were it not for the great number of small dwelling boats, which cover the face of the river. The people who occupy the larger portion of these boats are said to have come originally from the south; and being a foreign and despised race, were not, at first, allowed to dwell on shore; but most of the distinctions between them and the rest of the people have been abolished.

Although Canton is situated nearly in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, there is a considerable difference in their temperature; the former being much the coolest, and requiring fires during the winter months. The streets are very narrow, paved with little round stones, and flagged close to the sides of the houses. The front of every house is a shop, and those of particular streets are laid out for the supply of strangers. China-street is appropriated to Europeans; and here the productions of almost every part of the globe are to be found. One of the shopkeepers is always to be found sitting on the counter, writing with a camel's hair brush, or calculating with his swanpan, on which instrument a Chinese will perform operations in numbers with as much celerity as the most expert European arithmetician. This part of Canton being much frequented by the seamen, every artifice is used by the Chinese retailers to attract their attention; each of them having an English name for himself painted on the outside of his shop, besides a number of advertisements composed for them by the sailors in their own peculiar idiom. The latter, it may be supposed, are often duped by their Chinese friends, who have, in general, picked up a few sea phrases, by which the seamen are induced to enter their shops: but they suit each other extremely well; as the Chinese dealers possess an imperturbable command of temper, laugh heartily at their jokes without understanding them, and humour the seamen in all their sallies.

Ships only ascend the river as far as Whampoa, about 15 miles below Canton; loading and unloading by means of native boats.

The Chinese, considered as traders, are eminently active, persevering, and intelligent. They are, in fact, a highly commercial people; and the notion that was once very generally entertained, of their being peculiarly characterised by a contempt of commerce and of strangers, is as utterly unfounded as any notion can possibly be. Business is transacted at Canton with great despatch; and nowhere in the world may cargoes be sold and bought, loaded and unloaded, with more business-like speed and activity.

Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant in Canton, and, in general, of an excellent quality; nor is the price exorbitant. Every description of them, dead and alive, is sold by weight. It is a curious fact, that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in its liquid state, or in the shape of curds, butter, or cheese. Among the delicacies of a Chinese market are to be seen horse flesh, dogs, cats, hawks, and owls. The country is well supplied with fish from the numerous canals and rivers by which it is intersected.

Foreign Factories. These extend for a considerable way along the banks of the river, at the distance of about 100 yards. They are named, by the Chinese, hongs, and resemble long courts, or closes, without a thoroughfare, which generally contain 4 or 5 separate houses. They are built on a broad quay, and have a parade in front. This promenade is railed in, and is generally called Respondentia Walk; and here the European merchants, commanders, and officers of the ships meet after dinner and enjoy the cool of the evening. The English hong, or factory, far surpasses the others in elegance and extent. This, with the American and Dutch hongs, are the only ones that keep their national flags flying. The neighbourhood of the factories is occupied with warehouses for the reception of European goods, or of Chinese productions, until they are shipped. In 1822, during a dreadful conflagration that took place at Canton, the British factories and above 10,000 other houses were destroyed; on which occasion the East India Company's loss was estimated at 500,000l. sterling, three fifths in woollens.

R

For the space of 4 or 5 miles opposite to Canton, the river resembles an extensive floating city, consisting of boats and vessels ranged parallel to each other, leaving a narrow passage for others to pass and repass. In these the owners reside with their families; the latter rarely visiting the shore.

All the business at Canton with Europeans is transacted in a jargon of the English language. The sounds of such letters as B, D, R, and X, are unknown in China. Instead of these they substitute some other letter, such as L for R, which occasions a Chinese dealer in rice to offer for sale in English a rather unmarketable commodity. The name mandarin is unknown among the Chinese; the word used by them to denote a person in authority being quan. Mandarin is a Portuguese word derived from the verb mandar, to command. — (Hamilton's East India Gazetteer; Milburn's Orient. Commerce; Companion to Anglo-Chinese Calendar, &c.)

Trade with China, Treaty of 1842. The only real difficulty in trading with China originates in the despotism, pride, and jealousy of the government, and in the general corruption of its officers. The former affects to treat all foreigners with contempt, and is always exposing them to insult; while the latter endeavour to multiply and enforce vexatious regulations and demands, that they may profit by the douceurs given for their evasion. We submitted, with exemplary forbearance, for a lengthened period, to every petty indignity the Chinese government chose to inflict; but the proceedings connected with the seizure and destruction, in 1839, of the opium belonging to British subjects-(see OPIUM), led to hostilities between this country and China; and these, as every one knows, have been productive of events that will have a powerful influence over the future intercourse of Englishmen, and of foreigners generally, with the Chinese. It is due to the latter to state, that though they were uniformly defeated, how superior soever in respect of numbers, they evinced no want of courage; and there can be no doubt that their ill-success proceeded principally from their ignorance of military affairs, and the extreme inferiority of their firearms and artillery.

The following are the principal provisions in the treaty signed by Sir Henry Pottinger and the Chinese commissioners on the 29th of August, 1842 :

"China to pay 21,000,000 dollars in the course of the present and three succeeding years.

"The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai to be thrown open to British merchants; consular officers to be appointed to reside in them; and regular and just tariffs of impert and export (as well as inland transit) duties to be established and published.

"The island of Hong Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to her Britannic Majesty, her heirs and suc

cessors.

"All subjects of her Britannic Majesty (whether natives of Europe or India) who may be confined in any part of the Chinese empire to be unconditionally released.

"An act of full and entire amnesty to be published by the Emperor, under his imperial sign manual and seal to all Chinese subjects, on account of their having held service or intercourse with, or resided ander, the British government or its officers.

"Correspondence to be conducted on terms of perfect equality amongst the officers of both govern

ments.

"On the Emperor's assent being received to this treaty, and the payment of the first instalment, 6,000,000 dollars, her Britannic Majesty's forces to retire from Nanking and the Grand Canal, and the military posts at Chinhai to be also withdrawn; but the islands of Chusan and Kolangsoo are to be held until the money payments and the arrangements for opening the ports be completed."

In the course of the present year (1843), a proclamation was issued, prohibiting, conformably to the stipulations in the above treaty, British subjects from resorting, for the purposes of trade and commerce, to any other ports in the dominions of the Emperor of China, than those of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai, or than may be in the occupation of her Majesty's forces. Any persons committing a breach or violation of this direction are, upon conviction in any of her Majesty's courts of record or Vice-Admiralty, liable to a penalty, not exceeding 100%, or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 months, at the discretion of the court.

It will be seen from the subjoined documents that the principal stipulations in this treaty have since been very fully carried into effect. The tariff of import and export duties, framed in compliance with the clause to that effect in the treaty, appears to be bottomed on fair and liberal principles; and the superintendent has pledged himself that it shall, in as far as the British government is concerned, be honestly acted upon. Proclamation. Sir H. Pottinger, Bart., G.C.B., her British Majesty's Plenipotentiary, &c. &c. in China, has the satisfaction to announce, for the general information and guidance of all subjects of her Majesty, that he has concluded and sealed with the High Commissioner appointed by his Imperial Majesty the Emperor of China to treat with him, a commercial treaty stipulated for in the definitive treaty of peace signed at Nanking on the 29th day of August, 1842, and the ratifications of which definitive treaty of peace have been lately exchanged under the sign manual and seals of her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and his Majesty the Emperor of China. Her Britannic Majesty's Plenipotentiary, &c. now publishes the export and import tariff and the regulation of trade which have been, after the most searching scrutiny and examination, fixed and finally agreed upon, and which tariff and regulations of trade are to be promulgated in Chinese simultaneously with the proclamation, accompanied by a proclamation on the part of the Imperial Commissioners, &c. Her Britannic Majesty's Plenipotentiary, &c. trusts that the provisious of the commercial treaty will be found in practice mutually advantageous, beneficial, and just, as regards the interest, honour, and future augmented prosperity of the governments of the two contracting empires and their subjects, and his Excellency most solemnly and urgently calls upon all subjects of the British crown, individually and collectively, by their allegiance to their sovereign, by their duty to their country, and by their own personal reputation, respect, and good name, and by the integrity and honesty which is due from all men to the Imperial rights of the Emperor of China, not only to strictly conform and act up to the said provisions of the commercial treaty, but to spurn, decry, and make known to the world any base, unprincipled, and traitorous overtures which they, or their agents,

or employés, may receive from, or which may be in any shape made to them by any subject of China, whether officially connected with the government or not, for entering into any collusion or scheme for the purpose of evading or acting in contumacy of the said provisions of the commercial treaty.

Her Britannic Majesty's Plenipotentiary, &c. will not allow himself to anticipate or suppose that the appeal which he makes to all her Majesty's subjects will be unheeded or overlooked, by even a single individual; but, at the same time, it is his duty, in the responsible and unprecedented situation in which he has bee placed by the course of events, to distinctly intimate that he is determined, by every means at his disposal, to see the provisions of the commercial treaty fulfilled by all who choose to engage in future in commerce with China, and that in any case where he may receive well-grounded representations from her Majesty's consuls, or from the Chinese authorities, that such provisions of the Commercial Treaty have been evaded, or have been attempted to be so, he will adopt the most stringent and decisive measure against the offending parties; and where his present power may not fully authorise and sanction such a measure as may seem to him fitting, he will respectfully trust that the Legislature of Great Britain will hold him indemnified for adopting them in an emergency directly compromising the national honour, dignity, and good faith in the estimation of the government of China and in the eyes of all other nations. Dated at the Government House at Victoria, Hong Kong, this 22nd day of July, 1843 " (Signed)

HENRY POTTINGER. General Regulations under which the British Trade is to be conducted at the Five Ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai.

1. Pilots.Whenever a British merchantman shall arrive off the five ports opened to trade, viz.: Canton. Foo-chow-foo, Amoy, Ningpo, or Shanghai, pilots shall be allowed to take her immediately into port; and in like manner when such British ship shall have settled all legal duties and charges, and is about to return home, pilots shall be immediately granted to take her out to sea, without any stoppage or delay. Regarding the remuneration to be given these pilots, that will be equitably settled by the British Consul appointed to each particular port, who will determine it with due reference to the distance gone over, the risk run, &c.

2. Custom-house Guards. The Chinese Superintendent of Customs at each port will adopt the means that he may judge most proper to prevent the revenue suffering by fraud or smuggling. Whenever the pilot shall have brought any British merchantman into port, the superintendent of customs will depute one or two trusty custom-house officers, whose duty it will be to watch against frauds on the revenue. These will either live in a boat of their own, or stay on board the English ship, as may best suit their convenience. Their food and expenses will be supplied them from day to day from the customhouse, and they may not exact any fee whatever from either the commander or consignee. Should they violate this regulation, they shall be punished proportionately to the amount so exacted.

3. Masters of Ships reporting themselves on Arrival. Whenever a British vessel shall have cast anchor at any one of the above-named ports, the captain will, within four-and-twenty hours after arrival, proceed to the British consulate and deposit his ship's papers, bills of lading, manifest, &c., in the hands of the consul; failing to do which he will subject himself to a penalty of 200 dollars. For presenting a false manifest the penalty will be 500 dollars. For breaking bulk and commencing to discharge before due permission shall be obtained, the penalty will be 500 dollars and confiscation of the goods so discharged. The consul, having taken possession of the ship's papers, will immediately send a written communication to the superintendent of customs, specifying the register tonnage of the ship, and particulars of the cargo she has on board; all of which being done in due form, permission will then be given to discharge, and the duties levied as provided for in the tariff.

4. Commercial Dealings between English and China Merchants. — It having been stipulated that English merchants may trade with whatever native merchants they please, should any Chinese merchant fraudulently abscond or incur debts which he is unable to discharge, the Chinese authorities, upon complaint being made thereof, will of course do their utmost to bring the offender to justice; it must, however, be distinctly understood that if the defaulter really cannot be found, or be dead or bankrupt, and there be not wherewithal to pay, the English merchants may not appeal to the former customs of the Hong merchants paying for one another, and can no longer expect to have their losses made good to them. 5. Tonnage Dues. -- Every English merchantman, on entering any one of the above-mentioned five ports, shall pay tonnage dues at the rate of five mace per register ton, in full of all charges. The fees formerly levied on entry and departure, of every description, are henceforth abolished.

6. Import and Export Duties.-Goods, whether imported into or exported from any one of the above-mentioned five ports, are thenceforward to be taxed according to the tariff as now fixed and agreed upon, and no further sums are to be levied beyond those which are specified in the tariff. All duties incurred by an English merchant vessel, whether on goods imported or in the shape of tonnage dues, must first be paid up in full, which done, the superintendent of custoins will grant port clearance, and this being shown to the British consul, he will thereupon return the ship's papers and permit the vessel to depart.

7. Examination of the Goods at the Custom-house. Every English merchant having cargo to load or discharge, must give due intimation thereof, and hand particulars of the same to the consul, who will immediately despatch a recognised linguist of his own establishment to communicate the particulars to the superintendent of customs that the goods may be examined, and neither party subjected to loss. The English merchant must have a properly qualified person on the spot, to attend to his interests when his goods are being examined for duty; otherwise, should there be complaints, these cannot be attended to. Regarding such goods as are subject by the tariff to an ad valorem duty, if the English merchant cannot agree with the Chinese officer in fixing a value, then each party shall call two or three merchants to look at the goods, and the highest price at which any of these merchants would be willing to purchase shall be assumed as the value of the goods. To fix the tare on any article, such as tea; if the English merchant cannot agree with the custom-house officer, then each party shall choose so many chests out of every 100, which, being first weighed in gross, shall afterwards be tared, and the average tare upon these shall be assumed as the tare upon the whole, and upon this principle shall the tare be fixed upon all other goods in packages. If there should still be any disputed points which cannot be settled, the English merchant may appeal to the consul, who will communicate the particulars of the case to the superintendent of customs, that it may be equitably arranged. But the appeal must be made on the same day, or it will not be regarded. While such points are still open, the superintendent of customs will delay to insert the same in his books, thus affording an opportunity that the merits of the case may be duly tried and sifted.

8. Manner of paying the Duties. It is herein-before provided, that every English vessel that enters any one of the five ports, shall pay all duties and tonnage dues before she be permitted to depart. The superintendent of customs will select certain shroffs, or banking establishments of known stability, to whom he will give licences authorising them to receive duties from the English merchants on behalf of government, and the receipts of these shroffs for any money paid them shall be considered as a government voucher. In the paying of these duties, different kinds of foreign money may be made use of; but as foreign money is not of equal purity with sycee silver, the English consuls appointed to the different ports will, according to time, place, and circumstances, arrange with the superintendent of customs at each port, what coins may be taken in payment, and what per centage may be necessary to make them equal to standard or pure silver.

9. Weights and Measures. Sets of balance-yards for the weighing of goods, of money weights, and of measures, prepared in exact conformity to those hitherto in use at the custom-house of Canton, and duly