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THEORY OF ORGANIZATION.

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in a state of minute division, the requisite stimulus or excitation is given, and chemical union of the two substances is the result.

"Now if we apply these views to the phenomena of Life and Organization, we see that they enable us to regard those phenomena as analogous in character to those of the Inorganic world, though not identical with them; and they lead to a simplification of our ideas of them, which more clearly marks out the path to be pursued in their investigation. We find that the essential materials of Animal and Vegetable structures are the four elements, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen; these are distinguished by the extraordinary number and variety of the combinations into which they will enter,-so much so, indeed, as to constitute, in this respect, a group quite distinct from all the other elementary substances. Now we are perfectly justified by what we elsewhere see, in attributing to these elements the property or dormant capability of exhibiting vital actions (in addition to the ordinary chemical ones with which we are familiar,) so soon as they are placed in the requisite conditions; in ether words, as soon as they are made a part of the living system by the process of Organization. It is only the peculiarity of the conditions required to manifest this capability, which prevents us from recognizing it as an ordinary property of matter, or at least of those forms of it, which we know by experience to be capable of entering into organized structures." P. 36.

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The elements, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen, in a certain state of combination and arrangement, form the substance which we term Muscular fibre; and they then manifest certain peculiar properties, which we designate as vital. On the other hand, those same elements exist in nearly the same proportions, but in a different state of combination and arrangement, in the substance which we term Cyanate of Ammonia; and they then exhibit a different set of properties, which we call Physical and Chemical. Now we have just as much right to say, that the contractility of muscular fibre results from the peculiar combination and arrangement of the elementary particles in its substance, as we have to say that the solidity, translucency, hardness, and other qualities of the salt (all of which are opposed to the vital properties, and cannot co-exist with them,) are necessarily connected with its peculiar mode of combination and crystalline aggregation. If we were only acquainted with these elements as they exist in organic compounds, their transposition into a crystalline salt would be almost as marvellous to us, as the opposite change is now.' P. 37.

The author, in considering the opposite theory, or that according to which Vitality is regarded as something distinct from and superadded to organized structure, opposes to it the facts disclosed by embryology.

He contends that it seems absurd to suppose that, in a single cell-germ, a molecule almost invisible even with a high magnifying power, a force is concentrated, which is afterwards to be diffused through the whole structure of a vast tree, or through the ever-changing fabric of a complex animal. On the other hand, it is affirmed, that we get rid of every diffi culty, whilst at the same time we reason in accordance with the funda mental principles of Logic and Philosophy, which forbid us to assume any agency that is not required to explain the phenomena, if we suppose that Vital properties are called forth or developed in the substance of the germ, whilst this substance is being organized by the agency of its parent; that the germ, in its turn, calls forth or excites the dormant properties of the combining elements (like the spongy platinum, or the electic spark in a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen ;) that it thus originates, first a chemi. cal combination, and then a peculiar structural arrangement, the elements

then manifesting peculiar properties in place of their old ones, which last as long as they exist in that condition; and so on.

Such, briefly, is the theory advocated by Dr. Carpenter in the work before us; that it is characterized by the talent and extensive acquirements of its author, our readers will have themselves perceived. But, ingenious and even probable as we admit these views to be, it is necessary to point out that they are not, and, indeed, for the reasons already stated, in the present state of our knowledge, cannot be proved to do that it would be necessary that we should know all the properties of matter, and the conditions necessary to call them forth into active exercise. In the interval, vast as it probably will be, which will elapse ere this information be attained, we hold that the subject is one fairly belonging to physiological research and when it is discussed in the spirit which is alone befitting such inquiries, with sentiments that is to say of profound reverence towards the Deity, and with entire faith in the Christian revelation, no evils can result from the attempt to solve one of the most deeply interesting truths connected with our present state of being.

In the chapter on Vital Stimuli, the reader will find a large mass of interesting matter relating to the influence more especially of light, heat, and electricity upon the vegetable and animal kingdoms. This is an inquiry of the deepest importance both in physiology and pathology; and which, notwithstanding the attention that has been directed to it of late years, particularly since the appearance of Dr. Edward's admirable researches upon the influence of Physical Agents on Life, is still not sufficiently appreciated by practitioners. The effects produced by light have been principally investigated in plants; but, as the author observes, there is abundant proof that this agent exercises an important influence on the nutritive processes of animals: thus the appearance of animalcules in infusions of decaying organic matter is much retarded, if the vessel be altogether secluded from light; and it has been ascertained that, if an equal number of silk-worms' eggs be preserved in a dark room, and be exposed to common day-light, a much larger proportion of larvæ are hatched from the latter than from the former. It may be further remarked that—

"Numerous facts, collected from different sources, lead to the belief that the healthy development of the Human body, and the rapidity of its recovery from disease, are greatly influenced by the amount of light to which it has been exposed. It has been observed, on the one hand, that a remarkable freedom from deformity exists amongst nations who wear very little clothing; whilst on the other, it appears certain that an unusual tendency to deformity is to be found among persons brought up in cellars or mines, or in dark and narrow streets. Part of this difference is doubtless owing to the relative purity of the atmosphere in the former case, and the want of ventilation in the latter; but other instances might be quoted, in which a marked variation presented itself, under circumstances otherwise the same. Thus, it has been stated by Sir A. Wylie (who was long at the head of the medical staff in the Russian army,) that the cases of disease on the dark side of an extensive barrack at St. Petersburgh, have been uniformly, for many years, in the proportion of three to one, to those on the side exposed to strong light. And in one of the London Hospitals, with a long range of frontage looking nearly due north and south, it has been observed that residence in the south wards is much more conducive to the welfare of the patients, than in those on the north side of the building.' P. 56.

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INFLUENCE OF HEAT ON Life.

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The vast influence exerted by heat, as a stimulus to vital action, is con stantly exhibited in the two organic kingdoms; and, without regarding its operation on a grand scale as displayed by contrasting the progress of vegetation in the tropical and polar regions of the earth, we may often, by observing some of the individual actions of life, obtain a striking illustration of the direct effects produced by this all-pervading and mysterious agent. The process of incubation affords such an example: here the elevation of temperature directly excites the previously dormant powers of the germ into activity, and throughout the whole process of development, sustains the actions essential to the formation of the chick. Again, if the egg be opened subsequently to the completion of the area vasculosa on the fourth day, and be carefully transferred into lukewarm water, and the actions of the heart be watched, it will be found that in a short time the organ beats more slowly and feebly, but that, on again raising the temperature of the water, the contractions become immediately quickened and in the ratio of the heat applied; in this way the stimulating influence of heat is brought directly under the observation of the senses. The following are a few of the many details adduced on this subject by the author. amples of the adaptation of vegetables to extremes of temperature, it is found that in a hot spring in the Manilla islands, of the temperature of 187°, plants flourish; in one of the hot springs of Iceland, which boiled an egg in four minutes, a species of Chara was found growing; various Confervæ, &c., have been observed in the boiling springs of Arabia and the Cape of Good Hope; and at the island of New Amsterdam, there is a mudspring, which, though hotter than boiling-water, gives rise to a species of Liverwort. On the other hand, there is the Lichen, serving as the winter food of the Rein-deer, which spreads itself over the ground whilst thickly covered with snow; and the beautiful little Protococcus Nivalis, or Red Snow, reddens extensive tracts in the arctic regions, where the perpetual frost of the surface scarcely yields to the influence of the solar rays at midsummer.

As ex

We have only space for one more extract relating to a curious point in the economy of the bee:

"In order to hasten the development of the pupa of the Social Bees, a very curious provision is made. There is a certain set, to which the name of Nursebees has been given, whose duty it is to cluster over the cells in which the Nymphs or Pupæ are lying, and to communicate the heat to them, which is developed by the energetic movements of their own bodies, and especially by respiratory actions of extreme rapidity. The nurse-bees begin to crowd upon the cells of the nymphs, about ten or twelve hours before these last come forth as perfect Bees. The incubation (for so it may be called) is very assiduously persevered in during this period by the nurse-bees; when one quits the cell, another takes its place; and the rapidity of the respiratory movements increases, until they rise to 130 or 140 per minute, so as to generate the greatest amount of heat just before the young bees are liberated from the combs. In one instance, the thermometer introduced among seven nursing bees stood at 92°; the temperature of the external air being 70°. We observe in this curious propensity a manifest provision for accelerating the development of the perfect Insect, which requires (as already pointed out) a higher temperature than the larva, in virtue of its greater activity. The nurse-bees do not station themselves over the cells which are occupied by the larvæ; nor do they incubate the nymph-cells with any degree of constancy and regularity, until the process of development is approaching its highest point." P. 74.

In our present notice, we have confined ourselves to the introductory portion of Dr. Carpenter's Manual, which contains, mixed with many details of interest, an excellent sketch of General Physiology. The whole work is executed in the same spirit, and is brought up to the level of the day, all the important facts which have lately been added to our stock of knowledge being incorporated in the several sections. There are two plates and not less than 153 well executed wood-cuts dispersed through the work, which we have much pleasure in commending to the favourable notice of our readers.

SCROFULA; ITS NATURE, ITS CAUSES, ITS PREVALENCE, AND THE PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT. By Benjamin Phillips, F.R.S., Assistant Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital. 8vo. pp. 397. London. Bailliere, 1846.

THIS work reflects very great credit on Mr. Phillips as a most ardent and indefatigable inquirer after truth. The accumulation of so many details must have cost him a vast deal of patient research, and their arrangement much tedious and elaborate study; for his investigations have extended not merely to the public institutions within his reach, and to those at home, but to very many on the Continent of Europe, and even to some in America and in the East Indies. By putting himself in communication with medical men in different parts and regions of the world, and thus col. lecting information from a variety of sources, he reasonably hoped that he might be enabled to delineate, more accurately than preceding inqui. rers had been able to do, the natural history of the disease he had undertaken to illustrate, searching out its causes, and shewing what amount of influence such agencies as climate, food, occupation, mode of life, &c., have upon its development, and thus to suggest a more successful plan for its treatment, preventive as well as curative. One of the chief difficulties attending all such wide-spread inquiries, arises almost necessarily from the circumstance that medical men are by no means agreed among them. selves as to the essential characters of the object or condition to which the appellation of Scrofula is to be given. What are we exactly to mean by this term? What are the distinctive features of the disease? and how are we to recognize its existence? Unless all inquirers are agreed upon these points, it is quite obvious that we can never reasonably expect to arrive at anything like satisfactory general conclusions, when the data and materials, from which these conclusions are to be drawn, have been obtained from different sources. Mr. Phillips was fully aware of this difficulty in limine, and accordingly one of his first objects was to fix upon certain visible and readily discoverable features or phenomena, the presence of which was to be regarded as positive and trustworthy evidences of the ex. istence of Scrofula. Let us now see what these features are said to be.

At page 9, he "defines the ordinary marks of Scrofula to mean enlarged glands discoverable by the touch or the sight, sinuses or ulcerations re

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sulting from them, and ordinary scrofulous bones or joints." At page 26, it is said that "Scrofula is a disease of the constitution, and that it is most clearly manifested by certain external signs, of which swelling of the subcutaneous lymphatic ganglia is the most conclusive." A little farther on, it is defined to be "a disease, manifested by a peculiar deposit in the subcutaneous lymphatic glands; the mere enlargement of the glands, although affording a strong presumption, being not regarded per se as an absolute proof, that the constitution of the individual is scrofulous; for our author expressly says that, "unless the swelling of the gland be accompanied by a deposit of a product, hereafter to be described, known as scrofulous matter, the proof of a scrofulous constitution is, in my judg ment, wanting." Still more emphatic is the language used in the very next page, where Mr. P. expresses his belief that "diseases regarded as scrofulous, but in which no scrofulous matter is present, are not scrofulous at all, but simply the result of such low inflammatory action as is often set up in a debilitated state of the constitution." In following out his views, we shall find that our author comes to the conclusion that "the accumulation of certain morbid materials in the blood constitutes what is known as the scrofulous diathesis or constitution, and their deposition in the subcutaneous lymphatic glands constitutes what we know as scrofula.” Many readers will doubtless at once object to so much stress being laid upon the change in the subcutaneous glands, as if the mere fact of their enlargement constituted the pathognomonic sign or evidence of the existence of the disease. Mr. Phillips himself seems to afford more than one argument against this doctrine; for we find him admitting, in one passage, that "the bronchial glands are affected (with scrofulous deposit, -Rev.) more than twice as often as those of the mesentery, the latter four times as often as those of the neck, though in many respects less exposed, and the last named glands four times as those of the axilla and groins." If such then be the case, does not this very admission shew how fallacious it may be to take an enlarged state of the cervical glands as a safe or trustworthy test to discover the actual or relative frequency of scrofulous disease among any number of individuals? We must confess that, throughout the entire perusal of Mr. Phillips' most laborious and praiseworthy investigations, this objection has continually recurred to our mind. His correspondent, Dr. Griffin of Limerick, seems to take the same view; for we find him saying :

"With regard to enlarged glands, whether visible or perceptible to the touch, I doubt their being decided indications of a scrofulous tendency; eruptions on the skin, and especially on the head, will produce them, and such affections are extremely common in Ireland. Most of the enlargements included in the above Tables were of a trifling nature; indeed the vast majority of them were so, (about 80 per cent., or thereabouts.) But I made it a rule (as you seemed to require a test,) to include all such cases as were distinctly though very slightly visible, as well as all such as were distinctly, though often but slightly perceptible to the touch." P. 318.

That it is far from being easy, even in our author's opinion, to determine the actual existence of Scrofula in an individual, is abundantly obvious from the following passages :

"In a constitution favourable for the deposit of scrofulous matter, I believe No. 105.

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