to perform her Majesty's commands:* when, in the morning, the Queen left her chamber, which was hung with tapestried devices from the Eneid, she was received by Diana, who led the Virgin Queen to hunt in her own preserves, where no Acteon was likely to offend her modesty, &c. Similar pageants were exhibited by the several towns which Elizabeth visited or passed through in her progresses. In Norwich, for instance, she was welcomed by a troop of deities who, in order to do her homage, had descended from Olympus, with Cupid at their head, who presented to her a golden arrow, the sharpest in his quiver, which, if only it were shot by her irresistible beauty, would pierce through a heart of diamond. Even the confectioners and pastry-cooks were acquainted with Ovid and Virgil, and the festive table glittered with sugarwork, representing some significant metamorphoses, and the national plumb-cake was frequently ornamented with a relief, in sugar, representing the siege of Troy. (Warton, iii. 492.) Accordingly, no surprise is felt, if, even in the middle ranks, and among the citizens, we find both men and women acquainted with classical phrases and mythological names, which, if not learned directly from translations, may have been caught up from the conversation of the higher classes. It is, therefore, no offence against propriety in Shakspeare, as it would, perhaps, be in a writer of the present day, if, in "The Merry Wives of Windsor," he makes Mistress Page-a dame not over highly educated—ridicule Falstaff's declaration of love with a mythological simile. But even in this respect we have reason to admire his fine poetical tact. He soon felt that such far-fetched images and allusions, however consecrated by a passing humour of fashion, must, like any other tasteless ornament, if frequently employed, produce an unfavourable effect; and, accordingly, in his tales, and unquestionably genuine works, the use of them is comparatively rare.

Without doubt, both society and the intellectual culture of the nation gained something both in beauty of form and grace of movement, from this wide-spread familiarity with the poetical flowers of

*As, for instance, in the celebrated festivities at Kenilworth, Warton, ibid. ; Drake, i. 39; after Gascoyne: Princelie Pleasures at Kenilworth, and Laneham's Letter. Both were present, and a Mask by Gascoyne was exhibited.

classical antiquity. And while this benefit undoubtedly accrued from it, the lofty, original, and independent vigour of imagination, which, at this period the English mind undoubtedly possessed, entirely obviated its evil tendency. In spite of the fashionable bias, the true English genius could not be turned aside from its proper path. This attachment to the ancient learning seemed confined chiefly to sportive allusions, and while it increased the intellectual and poetical treasures of life, it enlarged the stock of knowledge, and exercised wit and invention, without, however, being able to penetrate to the inmost core of the national development of mind. For all that, the Englishman continued in the main a good Christian and Protestant. He remained true, also, to his old national manners, customs, and institutions, and till within a few years of Shakspeare's death, the national drama maintained itself in honour and repute, in direct opposition to the imitative admiration of antiquity.

In immediate juxtaposition with the fables of classical antiquity in the minds of the people, were the profoundly significant allusions and images contained in the ancient tales and legends of our northern forefathers. The world of spirits, elves, and fairies, magic and witchcraft, astrology and alchemy, and all the secret arts and sciences of the middle ages, still lived in the popular belief, feeding and filling the fancy with their wonderful and poetical imagery. The people still loved to while away the tedium ol their long winter evenings, with many a fearful tale and wonderfuf story of magician and fairy, giants and dwarfs, spirits and spectral appearances. On certain days of the year, this belief in prodigies and visions, omens and forebodings of every kind, gave rise to strange superstitious practices. On Midsummer night all magicians, with their ministering spirits and devils, were thought to throng the air, fiercely battling with each other; and certain herbs, gathered at a particular hour on this night, were believed to possess miraculous virtues. The feast of Michaelmas, again, served to revive the ancient belief in good and evil genii presiding ove the fortunes and destiny of men, (see “Henry IV.,” part ii., Act 1, Sc. 2; Act II. Sc. 4. "Antony and Cleopatra," ii. 3. "Macbeth.") To St. Mark's, St. Valentine's, and All Saints' and other days also, peculiar influences were severally

F

ascribed, (Warton, iii., 496. Drake, i., 316; ii. 154, 302, 474, &c.) These venerable relics of medieval fancy, which acquired fresh life and consideration under the superstitious James, Shakspeare has, with his usual felicity and profound. skill, made use of and invested with poetic dignity, in his "Hamlet" and " Macbeth," in "The Tempest," and particularly in "The Midsummer Night's Dream."

Chivalry, also, although no longer of any political or military importance, and, in many respects, sadly degenerated, still survived in its old principles of love and honour, and in the poetical forms with which it had invested the customs and intercourse of society. Not merely on extraordinary occasions, such as the visit of Christian IV. of Denmark to James I., but almost every year were tournaments held, and combats of every kind.* The fashion of dress, too, although constantly changing, and often tasteless and extravagant, but yet always splendid and fanciful, composed of silk and satin of the brightest colours, embroidered with gold and silver, and adorned with pearls and other precious stones,† was, nevertheless, in its principle features, still the pictorial attire of the middle ages. Tales of chivalry, in the same manner, and the olden ballads and legends, were great favourites of the people. Songs and Romaunts of King Arthur, of Aymon and his four sons, Charlemagne, Hugh of Bordeaux, Amadis of Gaul, the Knight of the Sun, the Seven Champions, the Palmerin d'Oliva, Bevis of Hampton, Sir Eglamour, Sir Fryamore, Sir Launfal, Sir Isenbrass, Friar Rous, Howleglass, Gargantua, Robin Hood (see Drake, i. 519), as well as the epic poems of Bocardo, Ariosto, and Tasso, cherished and kept alive romantic taste, while a pliant vein of variety and humour was stimulated by the merry tales of Boccaccio, Bandello, and other Spanish and Italian novelists. †

*Despatch of Count Beaumont, the French Ambassador, 12th Aug. 1606, in Raumer's Briefe aus Paris, ii. 271. For further particulars, consult Drake i. 553, 555, &c.

† See Drake, ii. 87-111.

That these were much read both in the original and in translations, and generally known, follows from the many dramatic recasts of them. Shakspeare has, from this source, two tragedies and several comedies. Drake i. 451, 541, &c.

In the same free license of poetic humour with which the whole of life was regarded, the forms of chivalry were mingled with the civic customs and court etiquette of a later age; and the credulous feeling and fantastic splendour of the middle ages were united with modern improvement and its plain practical common sense. Accordingly, there was no inconsistency in combining, in like manner, the mythical personages of the northern sagas and the world of magic with the Olympus and fabulous shapes of classical antiquity. As in Shakspeare, Ariel assumes the shape of a Grecian sea nymph, and Theseus and Hippolyta are joined in the same piece with Oberon and Titania, and in "Macbeth" Hecate presides over the witches; so, in the festival at Kenilworth, the Lady of the Lake mingled in the train of Neptune with the other deities of the sea. The personages in both these domains of thought were, in the belief and fancy of the people, possessed of an equal degree of life and reality. As yet they had not been dissected by prosaic reflection, nor sublimated into mere intellectual notions. As primarily they owed their origin to an immediate contemplation of nature, and to the emotions of a mind sensitively open to its impressions, so, from the *same causes, they still maintained a living presence in the popular creed. The people still had a feeling for them, and allowed its fancy to play in and with such notions, though more, perhaps, in lightsome poetical playfulness, than with that religious earnestness of feeling, which originally gave them existence. The general mental culture of the age had not, however, become, in the spirit of a prosaic philological pedantry, as it were, an orthopaedic stretch-bed, reducing whatever it touched to a dull, tasteless uniformity, but it was rather a beautiful and elastic ornament setting off, animating, and invigorating the mind, without, however, impeding or confining the freedom of its flights.

The same fantastic, and we may also say poetical feeling, which led the noble and wealthy to embellish their festivities with the forms of classical mythology and fiction, influenced the popular observance of their old national festivities and holidays. On New Year's Eve, it was the custom for youths and maidens to change dresses, and so disguised, to go through the villages with dances and songs. Twelfth Night was celebrated at court, and by

the nobility, with the exhibition of splendid masks and pageants, and by the people, with pastimes and mummings of every kind. Shrove Tide was, however, the especial season of theatrical exhibition. On this day every town and hamlet, high and low, noble and mean, all must have their spectacle. On May-Day festive processions, with bands of music, were to be seen in every village, and lofty May-poles, adorned with flags and banners, streamers and garlands, were erected, around which the young of both sexes danced merrily. The most beautiful and virtuous maiden was chosen Queen of the May, to preside over the festival, and to dance with the fool, a piper, and four or five Morris dancers, bedecked with shells, ribbons, and scarfs, the so-called Morris-dance -an imitation of the Spanish Morisco; or, perhaps, the place of these games was taken by Robin Hood and his maid Marian, as Queen, surrounded by a band of youths, fantastically disguised, to represent other popular and favourite characters, celebrated in song and legend, such as Friar Tuck, Little John, the Dragon, the Hobby Horse, and such like. Matches at crossbow and dancing usually ended the day. A portion of these festivities, particularly the much-loved Morris-dances, were repeated at Whitsuntide, under the direction of the Lord of Whitsun-Ale, and united with dramatic representations (Whitsun-plays). The Monday after Whitsun-week was the festival of Sheep-shearing, and was kept with like festivities. At the Harvest Home all. distinctions of master and man, mistress and maid, were laid aside -all mixed together without restraint; every one did and said what he pleased. In the winter, again, St. Martin's, and especially Christmas-day, were celebrated with song and dancewith games of all kinds and mummings. (Drake, i. 124. 208.) Each season of the year had one at least of such festivals. The anniversaries even of the consecration of churches, the yearly fairs and weddings, were not allowed to pass without dances, games, and even theatrical representations. (Drake, i. 124. 208.) In the intervals, again, between holiday and festival, there was still no lack of amusement. A national favourite was that of bearbaiting, (mentioned by Shakspeare in the "Merry Wives of Windsor,") for which the Paris Garden in London, a large circular building, was expressly built. Cock-fighting, too, which is also