they were faid to have loft, on account of their partiality to Minerva, in her difpute with Neptune, about giving a name to the city. In ordinary cafes, all matters were first deliberated in the fenate of five bundred, compofed of fifty fenators chofen out of each of the ten tribes. Each tribe had its turn of prefiding, and the fifty fenators in office were called Prytanes. And, according to the number of the tribes, the Attic year was divided into ten parts, the four first containing thirty-fix, the other thirtyfive days; in order to make the Lunar year complete, which, according to their calculation, contained one hundred and fifty-four days. During each of these divisions, ten of the fifty Prytanes governed for a week, and were called Proedri: and, of these, he who in the course of the week prefided for one day, was called the Epiftate: three of the Proedri being excluded from this office. The Prytanes affembled the people: the Proedri declare the occafion; and the Epiftate demand their voices. This was the cafe in the ordinary affemblies the extraordinary were convened as well by the generals as the Prytanes; and fometimes the people met of their own accord, without waiting the formalities. The affembly was opened by a facrifice; and the place was fprinkled with the blood of the victim. Then an imprecation was pronounced, conceived in thefe terms: "May the gods pur"fue that man to deftruction, with "all his race, who shall act, speak, "or contrive, any thing against this " ftate!" This ceremony being finished, the Proedri declared the occafion of the affembly, and reported the opinion of the fenate. If any doubt arose, an herald, by commiffion from the Epiftatæ, with a loud voice, invited any citizen, firft of those above the age of fifty, to speak his opinion: and then the rest according to their ages. This right of precedence had been granted by a law of Solon, and the order of fpeaking determined intirely by the difference of years. In the time of Demofthenes, this law was not in force. It is faid to have been repealed about fifty years before the date of this oration. Yet the custom ftill continued, out of respect to the reasonable and decent purpose for which the law was originally enacted. When a speaker has delivered his fentiments, he generally called on an officer, appointed for that purpose, to read his motion, and propound it in form. He then fat down, or refumed his difcourfe, and enforced his motion by additional arguments: and fometimes the fpeech was introduced by his motion thus propounded. When all the speakers had ended, the people gave their opinion, by ftretching out their hands to him whofe propofal pleased them most. And Xenophon reports, that, night having come on when the people were engaged in an important debate, they were obliged to defer their determination till next day, for fear of confusion, when their hands were to be raised. Porrexerunt manus, faith Cicero (pro Flacco) Pfephifma natum eft. And, to conftitute this Pfephifma or decree, fix thoufand citizens at least were required. When it was drawn up, the name of its author, or that perfon whofe opinion has prevailed, was prefixed whence, in fpeaking of it, they I call it his decree. The date of it contained the name of the Archon, that of the day and month, and that of the tribe then prefiding. The bufinefs being over, the Prytanes difmiffed the affembly. The reader who chufes to be more minutely informed in the customs, and manner of procedure in the public affemblies of Athens, may confult the Archaelogia of Archbishop Potter, Si. gonins or the Concionatrices of Aristophanes. HAD we been convened, Athenians! on fome new fubject of debate, I had waited, until most of the ufual perfons had declared their opinions. If I had approved of any thing propofed by them, I should have continued filent: If not, I had then attempted to speak my fentiments. But fince thofe very points on which thefe fpeakers have oftentimes been heard already are, at this time, to be confidered; though I have arifen firft, I prefume I may expect your pardon; for if they on former occafions had advised the necessary measures, ye would not have found it needful to confult at prefent. First then, Athenians! these our affairs must not be thought defperate; no, though their fituation feems intirely deplorable. For the most shocking circumftance of all our paft conduct is really the most favourable to our future expectations. And what is this? That our own total indolence hath been the cause of all our prefent difficulties. For were we thus diftreffed, in fpite of every vigorous effort which the honour of our ftate demanded, there were then no hope of a recovery. In the next place, reflect (you who have been informed by others, and you who can yourselves remember) how great a power the Lacedemonians not long fince poffeffed; and with what refolution, with what dignity you difdained to act unworthy of the ftate, but maintained the war against them for the rights of Greece. Why do I mention these things? That ye may know, that ye may fee, Athenians! that if duly vigilant, ye cannot have any thing to fear; that if once remifs, not any thing can happen agreeable to your defires: witness the then powerful arms of Lacedemon, which a just attention to your interefts enabled you to vanquish: and this man's late infolent attempt, which our infenfibility to all our great concerns hath made the caufe of this confusion. If there be a man in this affembly who thinks that we must find a formidable enemy in Philip, while he views, on one hand, the numerous armies which attend him; and, on the other, the weakness of the ftate thus defpoiled of its dominions; he thinks juftly. Yet let him reflect on this: there was a time, Athenians! when we poffeffed Pydna, and Potidæa, and Methone, and all that country round: when many of those states now fubjected to him were free and independent; and more inclined to our alliance than to his. Had then Philip reasoned in the fame manner, "How fhall I dare to attack the Atheni"ans, whofe garrifons command my ter"ritory, while I am deftitute of all af"fiftance!" He would not have engaged in those enterprizes which are now crowned with fuccefs; nor could he have raised himself to this pitch of greatness. No, Athenians! he knew this well, that all these places are but prizes, laid between the combatants, and ready for the conqueror: that the dominions of the abfent devolve naturally to those who are in the field; the poffeffions of the fupine to the active and intrepid: Animated by thefe fentiments, he overturns whole countries; he holds all people in fubjection: fome, as by the right of conqueft; others, under the title of allies and confederates: for all are willing to confederate with those whom they fee prepared and refolved to exert themselves as they ought. And if you (my countrymen!) will now at length be perfuaded to entertain the like fentiments; if each of you, renouncing all evafions, will be ready to approve himself an useful citizen, to the utmost that his ftation and abilities demand; if the rich will be ready to contribute, and the young to take the field; in one word, if you will be yourfelves, and banish those vain hopes which every single person entertains, that while fo many others are engaged in public bufinefs, his fervice will not be required; you then (if Heaven so pleases) fhall regain your dominions, recal thofe opportunities your fupinenefs hath neglected, and chaftife the infolence of this man. For you are not to imagine, that like a god, he is to enjoy his present greatnefs for ever fixed and unchangeable. No, Athenians! there are, who hate him, who fear him, who envy him, even among thofe feemingly the most attached to his caufe. Thefe are paffions common to mankind: nor muft we think that his friends only are exempted from them. It is true they lie concealed at prefent, as our indolence deprives them of all refource. But let us fhake off this indolence! for you fee how we are fituated; you fee the outrageous arrogance of this man, who does not leave it to your choice whether you shall act, or remain quiet; but braves you with his menaces; and talks (as we are informed) in a ftrain of the higheft extravagance: and is not able to rest satisfied with his prefent acquifitions, but is ever in purfuit of further conquefts; and while we fit down, inactive and irrefolute, inclofes us on all fides with his toils. When, therefore, O my countrymen ! when will you exert your vigour? When roufed by fome event? When forced by fome neceflity? What then are we to think of our prefent condition? To freemen, the difgrace attending on mifconduct is, in my opinion, the most urgent neceffity. Or, fay, is it your fole ambition to wander through the public places, each enquiring of the other, "What new advices ?" Can any thing be more new, than that a man of Macedon fhould conquer the Athenians, and give law to Greece? "Is Philip Rr 4 dead? "dead? No, but in great danger." How are you concerned in thofe rumours? Suppofe he fhould meet fome fatal ftroke: you would foon raife up another Philip, if your interefts are thus regarded. For it is not to his own ftrength that he fo much owes his clevation, as to our fupinenets. And fhould fome accident affect him; fhould fortune, who hath ever been more careful of the ftate than we ourselves, now repeat her favours (and may the thus crown them!) be affured of this, that by being on the spot, ready to take advantage of the confufion, you will every where be abfolute matters; but in your prefent difpofition, even if a favourable juncture fhould prefent you with Amphipolis, you could not take poffeffion of it, while this fufpence prevails in your defigns and in your coun cils. And now, as to the neceflity of a general vigour and alacrity; of this you must be fully perfuaded: this point therefore I fhall urge no further. But the nature of the arinament, which, I think, will extricate you from the prefent difficulties, the numbers to be raised, the fubfidies required for their fupport, and all the other neceffaries; how they may (in my opinion) be bett and most expeditiously provided; thefe things I fall endeavour to explain. But here I make this request, Athenians! that you would not be precipitate, but fufpend your judgment till you have heard me fully. And if, at firft, I feem to propofe a new kind of armament, let it not be thought that I am delaying your affairs. For it is not they who cry out, "Inftantly!" "This moment!" whofe counfels fuit the prefent juncture (as it is not poffible to repel violences already committed by any occafional detachment) but he who will fhew you of what kind that armament mult be, how great, and how fupported, which may fubfift until we yield to peace, or till our enemies fik beneath our arms; for thus only can we be fecured from future dangers. These things, I think, I can point out; not that I would prevent any other perfon from declaring his opinion: thus far am I engaged. How I can acquit myfelf, will immediately appear: to your judgments I appeal. Firt then, Athenians! I fay that you fhould fit out fifty thips of war; and then refolve, that on the firit emergency you will embark yourselves. To thefe I infift that you mun add tranfport, and other neceffaly veffels fufficient for half our horfe. Thus far we fhould be provided against thofe fudden excurfions from his own kingdom to Thermopyla, to the Cherfonefus, to Olynthus, to whatever places he thinks proper. For of this he fhould neceffarily be perfuaded, that poffibly you may break out from this immoderate indolence, and fly to fome fcene of action: as you did to Euboea, and formerly, as we are told, to Haliartus, and, but now. to Thermopyla. But although we fhould not act with all this vigour, (which yet I mult regard as our indifpenfable duty) fill the measures 1 propofe will have their ufe: as his fears may keep him quiet, when he knows we are prepared (and this he will know, for there are too too many among ourselves who inform him of every thing); or, if he fhould defpife our armament, his fecurity may prove fatal to him; as it will be abfolutely in our power, at the first favourable juncture, to make a descent upon his own coafts. Thefe then are the refolutions I propofe; thefe the provifions it will become you to make. And I pronounce it still farther neceffary to raise fome other forces which may harrafs him with perpetual incurfions. Talk not of your ten thousands, or twenty thoufands of foreigners; of thofe armies which appear fo magnificent on paper; but let them be the natural forces of the ftate: and if you chufe a fingle perfon, if a number, if this particular man, or whomever you appoint as general, let them be entirely under his guidance and authority. I alfo more you that fubfiftence be provided for them. But as to the quality, the numbers, the maintenance of this body: how are thefe points to be fettled? I now proceed to speak of each of them diftinctly. The body of infantry therefore-But here give me leave to warn you of an error which hath often proved injurious to you. Think not that your preparations never can be too magnificent: great and terrible in your decrees; in execution weak and contemptible. Let your preparations, let your fupplies at first be moderate, and add to thefe if you find them not fufficient. I fay then that the whole body of infantry fhould be two thoufand; of these, that five hundred fhould be Athenians, of fuch an age as you fhall think proper; and with a flated time for fervice, not long, but fuch as that others may have their turn of duty. Let the reft be formed of foreigners. To thefe you are to add two hundred horse, fifty of them at leaft Athenians, to ferve in the fame manner as the foot. For thefe you are to provide tranfports. And now, what farther preparations? Ten light gallies. For as he hath a naval power, we must be provided with light veffels, that our troops may have a fecure convoy. not for fervice. My countrymen! should not all thefe generals have been chofen from your own body; all these several officers from your own body, that our force might be really Athenian? And yet, for an expedition in favour of Lemnos, the general must be a citizen, while troops, engaged in defence of our own territories, are commanded by Menelaus. I fay not this to detract from his merit; but to whomfoever this command hath been intrufted, furely he thould have derived it from your voices. But whence are thefe forces to be fubfifted? This I fhall explain, when I have firit given my reafons why I think fuch numbers fufficient, and why I have advifed that we fhould ferve in perfon. As to the numbers, Athenians! my reafon is this it is not at prefent in our power to provide a force able to meet him in the open field; but we must harrafs him by depredations thus the war muit be carried on at first. We therefore cannot think of raising a prodigious army (for fuch we have neither pay nor provifions), nor muft our forces be abfolutely mean. And I have propofed, that citizens fhould join in the fervice, and help to man our fleet; because I am informed, that fome time fince, the state maintained a body of auxiliaries at Corinth, which Polyftratus commanded, and Iphicrates, and Chabrias, and fome others; that you yourselves ferved with them; and that the united efforts of thefe auxiliary and domeftic forces gained a confiderable victory over the Lacedemonians. But, ever fince our armies have been formed of foreigners alone, their victories have been over our allies and confederates, while our enemies have arifen to an extravagance of power. And thefe armies, with fcarcely the flighteft attention to the service of the ftate, fail off to fight for Artabazus, or any other perfon; and their general follows them: nor fhould we wonder at it; for he cannot command, who cannot pay his foldiers. What then do I recommend? That you should take away all pretences both from generals and from foldiers, by a regular payment of the army, and by incorporating domeftic forces with the auxiliaries, to be as it were infpectors into the conduct of the commanders. For at prefent our manner of acting is even ridiculous. If a man fhould afk, "Are "you at peace, Athenians?" the answer would immediately be, " By no means! "we are at war with Philip. Have not "we chosen the ufual generals and officers "both of horfe and foot ?" And of what ufe are all these, except the fingle perion whom you fend to the field? The reft attend your priefts in their proceffions. So that, as if you formed fo many men of clay, you make your officers for thew, and Perhaps you are fully fenfible of these truths; but would rather hear me upon another point; that of the fupplies; what we are to raife, and from what funds. To this I now proceed.-The fum therefore neceffary for the maintenance of thefe forces, that the foldiers may be fupplied with grain, is fomewhat above ninety talents. To the ten gallies, forty talents, that each veffel may have a monthly allowance of twenty mine. To the two thoufand foot the fame fum, that each foldier may receive ten drachmæ a month for corn. To the two hundred horie, for a monthly allowance of thirty drachmæ each, twelve talents. And let it not be thought a finall convenience, that the foldiers are fupplied with grain: for I am clearly fatisfied, that if fuch a provifion be made, the war itself will fupply them with every thing else, fo as to complete their appointment, and this without an injury to the Greeks or allies: and I myself am ready to fail with them, and to answer for the confequence with my life, fhould it prove otherwife. From what funds the fum which I propofe may be fupplied, fhall now be explained. [Here the fecretary of the affembly reads a fcheme for raifing the fupplies, and propofes it to the people in form, in the name of the orator.] Thefe are the fupplies, Athenians! in our power to raife. And, when you come to give your voices, determine upon fome effectual provifion, that you may oppose Philip, not by decrees and letters only, but by actions. And, in my opinion, your plan of operation, and every thing relating to your armament, will be much more happily adjusted, if the fituation of the country, which is to be the scene of action, be taken into the account; and if you reflect, that the winds and feafons have greatly contributed to the rapidity of Philip's conquefts; that he watches the blow ing of the Etefians, and the feverity of the winter, and forms his fieges when it is impollible for us to bring up our forces. It is your part then to confider this, and not to carry on the war by occafional detachments, (they will ever arrive too late) but by a regular army conftantly kept up. And for winter-quarters you may command Lemnos, and Thaffus, and Sciathus, and the adjacent iflands; in which there are ports and provifions, and all things neceffary for the foldiery in abundance. As to the feafon of the year, in which we may land our forces with the greatest eafe, and be in no danger from the winds, either upon the coaft to which we are bound, or at the entrance of thofe harbours where we may put in for provifions-this will be eafily difcovered. In what manner, and at what time our forces are to act, their general will determine, according to the junctures of affairs. What you are to perform, on your part, is contained in the decree I have now proposed. And if you will be perfuaded, Athenians! firft, to raife thefe fupplies which I have recommended, then to proceed to your other preparations, your infantry, navy, and cavalry; and, laitly, to confine your forces, by a law, to that fervice which is appointed to them; referving the care and diftribution of their money to yourselves, and strictly examining into the conduct of the general; then, your time will be no longer wafted in continual debates upon the fame fubject, and fearcely to any purpose; then, you will deprive him of the moft confiderable of his revenues. For his arms are now fupported, by feizing and making prizes of thofe who pafs the feas.-But is this all?-No.-You fhall alfo be fecure from his attempts: not as when fome time fince he fell on Lemnos and Imbrus, and carried away your citizens in chains: not as when he furprized your veffels at Geraftus, and fpoiled them of an unspeakable quantity of riches: not as when lately he made a defcent on the coaft of Marathon, and carried off our facred galley while you could neither oppofe thefe infults, nor detach your forces at fuch junctures as were thought conve nient. And now, Athenians! what is the reafon (think ye) that the public feftivals in honour of Minerva and of Bacchus are always celebrated at the appointed time, whether the direction of them falls to the lot of men of eminence, or of perfons lefs diflinguifhed: (feftivals which coft more trea fure than is ufually expended upon a whole navy; and more numbers and greater preparations, than any one perhaps ever cost) while your expeditions have been all too late, as that to Methonè, that to Pegafæ, that to Potidea. The reafon is this: every thing relating to the former is afcertained by law; and every one of you knows long before, who is to conduct the feveral entertainments in each tribe; what he is to receive, when, and from whom, and what to perform. Not one of these things is left uncertain, not one undetermined. But in affairs of war, and warlike preparations, there is no order, no certainty, no regulation. So that, when any accident alarms us, first, we appoint our trierarchs; then we allow them the exchange; then the fupplies are confidered. These points once fettled, we refolve to man our fleet with ftrangers and foreigners; then find it neceflary to fupply their place ourselves. In the midft of thefe delays, what we are failing to defend, the enemy is already mafter of: for the time of action we spend in preparing: and the junctures of affairs will not wait our flow and irrefolute measures. Thefe forces too, which we think may be depended on, until the new levies are raifed, when put to the proof plainly dif cover their infufficiency. By these means hath he arrived at such a pitch of infolence, as to fend a letter to the Euboeans, conceived in such terms as these : The LETTER is read. What hath now been read, is for the most part true, Athenians! too true! but perhaps not very agreeable in the recital. But if, by fuppreffing things ungrateful to the ear, the things themselves could be prevented, then the fole concern of a public fpeaker fhould be to please. If, on the contrary, thefe unfeafonably pleafing speeches be really injurious, it is fhameful, Athenians, to deceive yourselves, and, by deferring the confideration of every thing difagreeable, never once to move until it be too late; and not to apprehend that they who conduct a war with prudence, are not to follow, but to direct events; to direct them with the fame abfolute authority, with which a general leads on his forces that the course of affairs may be determined by them, and not determine their measures. But you, Athenians, although poffeffed of the greatest power of all kinds, fhips, infantry, cavalry, and : treasure; |