SYNTAX OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.

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185. Adjectives in the comparative degree require the ablative case; as, पत्नी प्राणेभ्योऽपि गरीयसी, “ a wife dearer even than one's life"; पुत्रस्पर्शात् सुखतरः स्पर्शो लोके न विद्यते, " there is no pleasanter touch in this world than the touch of a son "; वर्द्धनात् प्रजा रक्षणं श्रेयः, “ the protection of one's subjects is better than aggrandizement "; न मतो दुःखिततरः पुमान् अस्ति, " there is not a more wretched man than I"; मतिर् बलाद् बलीयसी, “ mind is more powerful than strength." a. Sometimes they govern the instrumental; as, प्राणैः प्रियतरः, dearer than life "; न अस्ति मया कश्चिद् अल्पभाग्यतरो भुवि, “ there is nobody upon earth more unfortunate than I."

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b. When it is intended to express "the better of two things" the genitive may be used; as, अनयोर् देशयोः को देशो भद्रतर:, “ of these two countries which is the

better?”

c. The comparative, in Sanscrit, is often resolved into the expression “ better and not "; as, वरं प्राणपरित्यागो न पुनर् ईदृशे कर्म्मणि प्रवृत्तिः, “ better abandon life than ( literally, and not) engage in such an action "; वरं मौनं कार्य्यं न च वचनम् उक्तं यद् अनृतं, “ it is better that silence should be kept than a speech uttered which is untrue."

d. The superlative degree is usually joined with the genitive; as, ब्राह्मणो द्विपदां श्रेष्ठो गौर् वरिष्ठा चतुष्पदां । गुरुर् गरीयसां श्रेष्ठः पुत्रः स्पर्शवतां वरः, “ a Brahman is the best of all bipeds, a cow of quadrupeds, a Guru of venerable things, a son of things possessed of touch "; but sometimes with the locative; as, नरेषु बलवत्तमः, the most powerful of men"; and even with an ablative; as, धान्यानां सङ्ग्रह उत्तमः सर्व्व.सङ्ग्रहात्, “ a store of grain is the best of all stores."

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e. Comparison is often expressed by an adjective in the positive degree, joined with a noun in the ablative case; as, नास्ति तस्मात् पुण्यवान्, "there is not a happier than he."

f. Many words are in their nature comparative and require an ablative case, especially वरं, अवरं, अन्य, अन्यदा, अन्यत्र, इतर, पर, अधिक, ऊन ; as, प्रक्षालनात् पक्कस्य अस्पर्शनं वरं, “ it is better not to touch mud than to wash it off"; दारिद्रम् अवरं मरणात्, “poverty is less desirable than death "; को मां मित्राद् अन्यस् त्रातुं समर्थ:, “who is able to rescue me, other than a friend ?” किन्नु दुःखम् अतः परं, “wl:at grief is greater than this?" न श्रुताद् अन्यद् विब्रूयात्, one ought not to speak differently from what one has heard "; तत्कालाद् अन्यदा, “ at another time

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than the present"; नरस्य न अन्यत्र मरणाद् भयं, “ there is no cause of fear to man from any other quarter than from death"; योजनशताद् अधिकं, “ more than a hundred yojanas"; कान्तोदन्तः सङ्गमात् किञ्चिद् जन:, “ intelligence of a lover is something less than a meeting."

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g. Numerals if used partitively may take the genitive; as, Aagi anagenfu,

a hundred thousand of the horses"; and, if comparatively, the ablative; as, विवादात् द्विगुणं दमं, “ a fine the double of that which is in dispute.”

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SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

186. The chief peculiarities in the syntax of pronouns have already been noticed in Chapter V., pp. 50-55. It remains to offer one or two remarks with reference more especially to the relative and interrogative.

a. In the use of these pronouns a very peculiar attraction is often to be observed; that is, when either a relative or interrogative pronoun has been used, and an indefinite pronoun would naturally be expected to follow, the relative or interrogative are repeated, as in the following examples: यो यस्य (for कस्यचित्) भावः स्यात्, "whatever may be the disposition of whom (i.e. any one)"; रोचते यस्मै, “ whatever is pleasing to any one "; सन्ति, "whatever excellencies belong to any one "; ay, “whatever corresponds with any thing "; केषां किं शास्त्रम् book is to be read by whom? (i.e. by any one)."

यद्

यस्य ये Jur: येन युज्यते,

अध्ययनीयं, “ what

187. The relative and interrogative are sometimes used together in an indefinite distributive sense; as, f afa faafu, “any friends whatever "; or more usually with fa affixed to the interrogative; as, fa, “to any one whatever."

a. The neuter of the interrogative is often joined with the instrumental to signify "what is the use of?" “there is no need of"; as, श्रुतेन किं यो न धम्र्म्मम् आचरेत् किम् आत्मना यो न जितेन्द्रियो भवेत्, "of what use is scriptural knowledge (to one) who does not practice virtue, of what use is a soul (to one) whose passions are not kept in subjection ?” fåà và u, “what business have you to make this inquiry?"

See, on this subject, Bopp's Comp. Gram. (Prof. Eastwick's Translation), vol. ii. p. 537.

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b. As already shewn (p. 166.), a relative pronoun is sometimes rendered unnecessary by the use of the relative compound; thus, is equivalent to नगरी यस्याश् चन्द्रिका धौतानि हम्याणि, “ a city whose palaces were silvered by the moon-beams." The relative, when followed by a pluperfect tense, may sometimes be expressed by the indeclinable participle; thus, सिंहो व्याधं हत्वा, "a lion having killed a hunter,” or “a lion who had killed a hunter."

SYNTAX OF VERBS.

188. Nothing is more common in Sanscrit syntax than for the verb to be omitted altogether, or supplied from the context. This is more especially the case with the copula, or substantive verb; thus, यावन् मेरुस्थिता देवा यावद् गङ्गा महीतले । चन्द्राकै गगने यावत् तावद् विप्रकु वयं, “ as long as the gods have existed in Meru, as long as the Ganges upon earth, as long as the sun and moon in the sky, so long have we (existed) in the family of Brahmans";* uft: fur, “discrimination (is) wisdom."

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Nominative, Genitive, and Locative Absolute.

The no

189. These cases are used absolutely with participles. minative is very rarely thus used ; as, सुहृन् मे समायातः पुण्यवान् अस्मि "my friend having arrived, I am happy." The genitive more frequently ; as, आपदाम् आपतन्तीनां, “ calamities impending "; पश्यतां qui, "the men looking on." The locative very commonly; as, तस्मिन् जीवति जीवामि मृते तस्मिन् म्रिये पुन:, “he living I live, he dying I die"; अवसन्नायां रात्रौ, “ the night being ended "; असति उपायान्तरे, 'there being no other expedient." Sometimes the verb is omitted; as,, “the danger (being) distant." When the passive participle is thus used absolutely with a noun in the locative case, the present participle of , "to be," is often redundantly added; as, तथा कृते सति, " it being so done."

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Hence it is evident that the genitive or locative absolute often takes the place of the particles, "when,"" while," "since," "although." Nominative Case after the Verb.

190. Verbs signifying "to be," "to become," "to appear,” “to

* The writer of these pages is indebted for this couplet to Mr. Seton Karr, of the Bengal Civil Service. It is in the mouth of all the Kulin Brahmans of Bengal, and is that on which they found their claim to precedence.

be called," or "to be esteemed," and other passive verbs used denominatively, may take a nominative after them; as, ☺ स्यात्, “let a king be the protector of his subjects "; सा निरानन्दा प्रतिभाति, fnf, "she appears sorrowful"; ff, "the village appears like a desert"; fort, “a king is called Justice"; gnì fanțuè, “this (book) is called Hitopadesha.”

Accusative Case after the Verb.

191. Transitive verbs generally govern this case; as, fa वेधा:, “ Brahmā created the universe "; पुष्पाणि चिनोति नारी, “ the woman gathers flowers";a:, "the dying man gave up प्राणान् जहौ the ghost"; मधु वर्जयेत्, “ one should avoid wine "; तत्वं ब्रूहि, “speak

the truth."

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a. So also verbs of "motion "; as, wf my gfa:, “the holy man goes to the place of pilgrimage "; 78: ayd çafa, “rivers run into the ocean"; f," he wanders over the earth."

b. Verbs of motion are not unfrequently used with substantives to supply the place of other verbs; as, fi fa, "he goes to fame" for "he becomes famous"; fa, "he goes to equality"

for "he becomes equal."

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f, “he desires what is unat

c. The following are other examples: tainable"; विद्यां चिन्तयेत्, “he should think on wisdom"; अश्वम् आरोहति, “he mounts his horse"; कम्मीणि चारेभिरे, “ they began the business"; गतान् मा शुचः, “ grieve not for the departed”; सर्व्व. लोकाधिपत्यम् अर्हति, “he deserves the sovereignty of the universe"; na, “he lies down in a cave of the mountain.”

d. There are certain verbs which take a redundant accusative case after them of a substantive derived from the same root; as, ч, “he swore an oath"; वसति वासं, “he dwells"; वर्त्तते वृत्तिं, “he conducts himself"; वाक्यं वदति, “he speaks a speech"; f, “he raises a cry" (cf. the Greek expressions Aéyw λόγον, χαίρω χαράν, &c.).

Double Accusative after the Verb.

192. Verbs of "asking" govern a double accusative; as,, "he seeks a boon of the god"; vi å, “he begs money from the king." Of “speaking”; as, usiri zeng aze, “he addressed a speech to the king.”

a. Causal verbs; as, afnfŸ »ñauf, “he causes the guest to eat food"; ai sivunfa un à fer, "I cause you to know what is for your interest”; शिष्यं वेदान् अध्यापयति गुरुः, “the Guru teaches his pupil the Vedas"; तां गृहं

प्रवेशयति, “he causes her to enter the house"; फलपुष्पोदकं माहयामास नृपात्मजं, “he presented the king's son with fruits, flowers, and water"; gag andqufa, "she causes her son to sit on her lap” (literally “her hip”); fa&ai qi ugaufa, "learning leads a man into the presence of a king.”

b. The following are other examples: Hrafna afufafag:, "they inaugu rated him general," more usually joined with an acc. and loc.; a qfi qufa, “ she chooses a god for her husband "; अवचिनोति कुसुमानि वृक्षान्, "she gathers blossoms from the trees "; तान् प्राहिणोद् यमसादनं, “he sent them to the abode of Yama” (Hades); स्वचेष्टितानि नरं गुरुत्वं विपरीततां वा नयन्ति “ his own acts lead

a man to eminence or the reverse."

Instrumental Case after the Verb.

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193. Any verb may be joined with the instrumental, to express the instrument, or cause, or manner of the action; as, you anda grufa, "the flower fades by reason of the wind"; : sf, "he plays with dice"; मेघोऽग्निं वैर्षेर् निर्वापयति, “ the cloud puts out the fire with its rain"; gaf, “he lives happily.”

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a. In this sense many causals take an instrumental; as, i fagiĻ. HISTqTATA,

"he caused her to eat sweet-meats."

b. After verbs of "motion" this case is used in reference either to the vehicle by which, or the place on which, the motion takes place; as, chariot"; fa, "he goes on horse-back"; anu nefa,

“he goes in a "he goes on the

road"; gym, "he navigated the ocean in a boat." सुस्राव नयनैः सलिलं, “ tears flowed through the eyes.”

Similarly,

c. After verbs of " carrying," "placing," &c., it is used in reference to the place on which any thing is carried or placed : as, वहति मूड्डा इन्धनं, “he bears faggots on his head"; "the dog is borne on the shoulders." is कृ found with this case in the sense of placing; as, शिरसा पुत्रम् अकरोत्, “he placed his son on his head." The following are other examples: शिष्येण गच्छति गुरुः, "the master goes in company with the pupil "; cara affur:, "he consulted with his ministers." But in this sense is usually placed after it. Rått सङ्गच्छति, “the husband meets the wife "; संयोजयति रथं हयै:, “he harnesses the horses to the chariot; fay, "he is separated from the body,” more usually with the ablative. युध्यते शत्रुभि:, “he fights his enemies,” or शत्रुभि: सह .

d. Verbs of "boasting"; as, fa fare, "you boast of your learning"; परेषां यशसा श्लाघसे, “ you glory in the fame of others.” Of "swearing"; as, , “he swore by his bow.”