when at last they make their appearance, are found mature, solid, and irresistible. . . .

You cannot fight against the future. Time is on our side. The great social forces which move on in their might and majesty, and which the tumult of our debates does not for a moment impede or disturb, - those great social forces are against you; they are marshaled on our side; and the banner which we now carry, though, perhaps, at some moment it may droop over our sinking heads, yet it soon again will float in the eye of heaven, and it will be borne by the firm hands of the united people of the three kingdoms, perhaps not to an easy but to a certain and to a not distant victory.

As examples of the many measures of a reforming nature carried through parliament in the years immediately following the Reform Bill of 1867, may be taken the bill for the abolition of religious tests at the universities, the bill for free public education, and the bill for legalizing trade unions. The following extracts include a few sections from each of these statutes.

Previous to this time every student, fellow, and lecturer at the universities had been compelled to take certain oaths and conform to certain religious requirements which none but members of the Church of England could conscientiously do. The universities were now by law thrown open to members of all creeds.

abolishing

tests at the

Whereas, it is expedient that the benefits of the universities 442. Extracts of Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, and of the colleges and from the law halls now subsisting therein, as places of religion and learning, religious should be rendered freely accessible to the nation : And whereas, by means of divers restrictions, tests, and dis- universities abilities, many of her Majesty's subjects are debarred from the full enjoyment of the same:

And whereas, it is expedient that such restrictions, tests, and disabilities should be removed, under proper safeguards

(1870)

for the maintenance of religious instruction and worship in the said universities and the colleges and halls now subsisting within the same :

...

No religious No person shall be required, upon taking or to enable him. requirement to take any degree (other than a degree in divinity) within the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, or any of them, or upon exercising or to enable him to exercise any of the rights and privileges which may heretofore have been or may hereafter be exercised by graduates in the said universities or any of them, or in any college subsisting at the time of the passing of this act in any of the said universities, or upon taking or holding, or to enable him to take or hold any office in any of the said universities or any such college as aforesaid, or upon teaching or to enable him to teach within any of the said universities or any such college as aforesaid, or upon opening or to enable him to open a private hall or hostel in any of the said universities for the reception of students, to subscribe any article or formulary of faith, or to make any declaration or take any oath respecting his religious belief or profession, or to conform to any religious observance, or to attend or abstain from attending any form of public worship, or to belong to any specified church, sect, or denomination; nor shall any person be compelled, in any of the said universities or any such college as aforesaid, to attend the public worship of any church, sect, or denomination to which he does not belong.

Education in England was formerly considered principally a matter to be cared for by the church or by private individuals. Nevertheless both church and endowed schools had long received some financial aid from the government. Now a still further step was taken. Compulsory free education was introduced. The two great difficulties the unwillingness of local authorities to go to the expense of supporting the schools, and religious differences were met in the way shown in the following clauses of the act of 1870.

There shall be provided for every school district a sufficient 443. Extracts

from the law

amount of accommodation in public elementary schools (as establishing hereinafter defined) available for all the children resident in free public such district for whose elementary education efficient and suita- schools (1870) ble provision is not otherwise made; and where there is an insufficient amount of such accommodation, in this act referred to as "public school accommodation," the deficiency shall be supplied in the manner provided by this act.

Where the education department, in the manner provided by this act, are satisfied and have given public notice that there is an insufficient amount of public school accommodation for any school district, and the deficiency is not supplied as hereinafter required, a school board shall be formed for such district and shall supply such deficiency, and in case of default by the school board the education department shall cause the duty of such board to be performed in the manner provided by this act.

Every elementary school which is conducted in accordance with the following regulations shall be a public elementary school within the meaning of this act; and every public elementary school shall be conducted in accordance with the following regulations (a copy of which regulations shall be conspicuously put up in every such school); namely, (1) it shall not be required, as a condition of any child being admitted in or continuing in the school, that he shall attend or abstain from attending any Sunday school or any place of religious worship, or that he shall attend any religious observance or any instruction in religious subjects in the school or elsewhere, from which observance or instruction he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he shall, if withdrawn by his parent, attend the school on any day exclusively set apart for religious observance by the religious body to which his parent belongs; (2) the time or times during which any religious observance is practiced or instruction in religious subjects is given at any meeting of the school shall be either at the beginning, or at the end, or at the beginning and the end of such meeting.

A full investigation of trade unions was made by a large parliamentary committee during the years 1867-1869.

444. Extracts

The law adopted on its recommendation gave the trade unions a legal right to exist, and, if they were registered, certain other rights similar to those of an insurance company.

The purposes of any trade union shall not, by reason merely from the law that they are in restraint of trade, be deemed to be unlawful legalizing trade unions so as to render any member of such trade union liable to crim(1871) inal prosecution for conspiracy or otherwise.

Officers of trade unions

held to account

The purposes of any trade union shall not, by reason merely that they are in restraint of trade, be unlawful so as to render void or voidable any agreement or trust. . . .

Any seven or more members of a trade union may, by subscribing their names to the rules of the union, and otherwise complying with the provisions of this act with respect to registry, register such trade union under this act, provided that if any one of the purposes of such trade union be unlawful such registration shall be void.

It shall be lawful for any trade union registered under this act to purchase or take upon lease in the names of the trustees for the time being of such union any land not exceeding one

acre. . .

Every treasurer or other officer of a trade union registered under this act, at such times as by the rules of such trade union he should render such account as hereinafter mentioned, or, upon being required so to do, shall render to the trustees of the trade union, at a meeting of the trade union, a just and true account of all moneys received and paid by him since he last rendered the like account, and of the balance then remaining in his hands.

A general statement of the receipts, funds, effects, and expenditure of every trade union registered under this act shall be transmitted to the registrar before the first day of June in every year, and shall show fully the assets and liabilities at the date, and the receipts and expenditure during the year preceding the date to which it is made out, of the trade union; and shall show separately the expenditure in respect of the several objects of the trade union..

The term "trade union means any combination, whether Definition of temporary or permanent, for regulating the relations between a trade union workmen and masters, or between workmen and workmen, or between masters and masters, or for imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any trade or business.

The measure for legalization of trade unions, from which some passages have just been given, did not go nearly so far as many supporters of the unions wished. A minority report still more favorable to the unions was therefore made by two members of the investigating committee. From this the following passages are taken.

report on

The first impression which the results of this protracted 445. Extracts inquiry produce is one which it is of importance never to lose from minority sight of the great extent to which unionism has been carried. trade unions There is no industry in the country, with some very doubtful (1869) exceptions, into which it has not entered, and very few parts of the country where it is not prevalent. . . .

It is probable that in many trades some of the best and most educated men stand aloof. It has not, however, been suggested by any one that the union is ever composed of the inferior order of workmen, though it may not invariably be composed of the superior. In some trades, and those perhaps requiring the greatest skill, it seems to be admitted that the union contains the great bulk of the most skilled men as the engineers, the iron founders, the painters, glass makers, printers, shipbuilders, and others. All legislation, and all discussion with a view to legislation, must therefore take as its basis this general fact; viz., that a very great proportion of the skilled workmen of the country have for many years shown a strong and increasing disposition to unite themselves in these trade societies. The evidence leaves no doubt on our minds that the union as a rule consists of the superior class of workmen; and we can see no indications whatever that it is ever regarded as injurious by any body of workmen deserving attention from either their numbers or their character. .