For it is not certain whether we shall not find one or more other such extracts which will please you; and if that should so happen, we shall be glad that we have kept them apart." "Your plan is good," said he; and I gladly made haste to get ready a sheet, in the beginning of which I wrote what he bade me; and on that same day I wrote therein, as I had antici- King Alfred's pated, no less than three other quotations which pleased him; and from that time we daily talked together, and found out other quotations which pleased him, so that the sheet became full. . . .

And he continued to learn the flowers collected by certain masters, and to reduce them into the form of one book, as he was then able, although mixed one with another, until it became almost as large as a psalter. This book he called his manual, because he carefully kept it at hand day and night, and found, as he told me, no small consolation therein.

One of the greatest difficulties in historical study is to obtain any knowledge of how the common people lived. The doings of kings, nobles, and great churchmen are more apt to be recorded than those of farmers, tradesmen, or laborers. A glimpse of the occupations and positions of such men can, however, be obtained from a conversation written by Ælfric about A.D. 990, in Latin and Anglo-Saxon in parallel lines, and intended to teach boys the use of Latin through their mother tongue by means of an account of things familiar to them.

selections

a teacher

Pupils. We beg you, O Master, to teach us to speak Latin 41. Dialogue correctly, for we are unlearned and speak ignorantly. Teacher. between What do you want to speak about? Pupils. What do we care and pupils what we speak about, so long as our speech is correct and useful, not foolish or improper? Teacher. Do you wish to be flogged as you learn? Pupils. We had rather be flogged for the sake of learning than remain ignorant, but we know you are kind and will not want to inflict blows on us unless you are compelled to by us. Teacher (to one of the pupils). I ask

The plow

man

The shepherd

The oxherd

The teacher

thee what thou wilt say to me? What kind of work hast thou? Pupil. I have taken vows as a monk and sing every day with the brethren seven times, and I am busy with reading and singing; but nevertheless I would like meanwhile to learn to speak in the Latin tongue. Teacher. What do these thy companions know? Pupil. Some are plowmen, some shepherds, some oxherds, some huntsmen, some fishermen, some hawkers, some peddlers, some shoemakers, some salt dealers, some bakers.

Teacher. What dost thou say, plowman? How dost thou carry on thy work? Plowman. O Master, I work too hard; I go out at early dawn driving the oxen to the field, and yoke them to the plow. There is no winter so bitter that I venture to remain at home, for fear of my lord; then when the oxen are yoked and the share and colter fastened to the plow, through the whole day must I plow a complete acre or more. Teacher. Hast thou a companion? Plowman. I have a certain boy who drives the oxen with a goad, and who is now hoarse from cold and shouting. Teacher. What else dost thou do in a day? Plowman. Certainly I have more to do. I have to fill the mangers of the oxen with hay, and water them, and carry their dung outside. Teacher. Oh! oh! that is much labor. Plowman. Yes, the labor is great because I am not free.

Hast thou any

Teacher. What dost thou say, shepherd?. labor? Shepherd. Indeed, I have. In the early morning I drive my sheep to their pasture, and I stand over them in heat and cold with a dog, so that the wolves shall not devour them, and I bring them back to their fold, and I milk them twice a day, and I move their folds besides, and I make cheese and butter, and I am faithful to my lord.

Teacher. Oxherd, what dost thou do? Oxherd. O Master, I do much labor. When the plowman unyokes the oxen I lead them to the pasture, and the whole night I stand over them watching on account of thieves, and then at break of day I take them to the plowman well fed and watered.

Teacher. Is this man one of your companions? Pupil. Yes, and the hunts- he is. Teacher. Dost thou know anything? I know one craft. What is that? I am a huntsman. Whose? The king's. How

man converse

dost thou carry on thy craft? I set my nets and spread them in a suitable place, and I set on my dogs so that they shall drive the wild animals and cause them to run unawares into the nets, and I strangle them in the nets. Canst thou not hunt without nets? Yes, I am able to hunt without nets. How? I chase wild animals with swift dogs. What wild animals dost thou take principally? I take deer and boars, and does and goats, and sometimes hares. Hast thou been hunting to-day? I have not because it is Sunday, but yesterday I was hunting. What didst thou capture? Two stags and one boar. How didst thou catch them? The stags I took in nets and the boar I stuck in the throat. How didst thou dare to stick the boar? The dogs drove him to me and I, standing in the way, suddenly stuck him. Thou wast certainly bold then. A huntsman must not be timid, for many kinds of wild beasts live in the woods. What dost thou do with what thou dost capture? I give to the king whatsoever I capture because I am his huntsman. What does he give thee? He feeds and clothes me well, and sometimes he gives me a horse or a bracelet that I may carry on my work more cheerfully.

chant converse

Teacher. What dost thou say, merchant? Merchant. I say The teacher that I am useful to the king, to ealdorman, to rich men, and to and the merthe whole people. Why? I go aboard my vessel with my merchandise and over the seas and sell my things and buy precious wares which are not produced in this country, and I bring them hither to you with great danger over the seas; and sometimes I suffer shipwreck, scarcely escaping alive after the loss of all my possessions. What things dost thou bring to us? Purple dye and silk, precious gems and gold, different colored cloths and paints, wine and oil, ivory and brass, copper and tin, sulphur and glass, and things such as these. Art thou willing to sell thy things here just as thou hast bought them there? I am not willing. Of what advantage would my labor then be to me? I want to sell them here more dear than I bought them there, so that I can make some gain to support myself, my wife, and my son. Teacher. Thou, shoemaker, what dost thou do in thy work The shoethat is useful to us? Shoemaker. My art is indeed very useful and indeed very necessary to you. How? I buy hides and

maker and others converse

skins and prepare them by my art and make of them leather goods of every kind: sandals and shoes, leggings and leather bags, bridles and collars, wallets and sacks; and no one of you is willing to pass the winter without my art.

Teacher. Salt dealer, of what use is thy trade to us? Salt dealer. My trade is of very great use to all of you. No one of you takes any enjoyment in his dinner or his supper unless my craft is friendly with him. Teacher. How is that? Salt dealer. What man enjoys pleasant foods without the savor of salt? Who fills his cellars or storehouse without my craft? Behold, all your butter and cheese would spoil unless I acted as your guardians over them. You would not even eat your vegetables without me.

The wood carver says: Which of you does not make use of my craft, since I construct houses and utensils and ships for all of you?

The smith replies: O wood carver, why dost thou talk that way when thou canst not bore a single hole without my craft?

The good adviser says: O comrades and good workmen, let us give up these contentions and let there be peace and concord between us, and let each be of service to the other in his trade, and let us all meet at the plowman's, where we shall have food for ourselves and fodder for our horses; and I give this advice to all workmen, that each one exercise his trade diligently, because he who deserts his trade will be deserted by his trade. Whether thou art a priest or a monk, or a layman or a soldier, busy thyself about it; be what thou art, because it is a great loss and shame to a man not to be willing to be that which he is and ought to be.

Written at almost the same time as the dialogue from which the above extract is taken, that is about A.D. 1000, is a set of rules, or statements of the duties, payments, and burdens of different classes of men on a manor. This also was written in two languages, Latin and AngloSaxon. It is usually referred to as Rectitudines Singularum Personarum. The following extract describes the

services and privileges of the gebur, that is, of the common peasant or small farmer, the villein of later times.

tudines

Personarum,

Persons

The peasant's services are various: in some places burden- 42. Rectisome, in others light or moderate. On some land he must work Singuat week-work two days every week, at such work as he is re- larum quired through the year, and three days for week-work, and or Rules for from Candlemas to Easter three. If he do carrying he is not Various required to work while his horse is out. He shall pay on Michaelmas day 10 d. rent and on Martinmas day 23 measures of barley and 2 hens; at Easter a young sheep or 2 d., and he shall watch from Martinmas to Easter at his lord's fold as often as it is his turn. And from the time that they first plow, to Martinmas, he shall each week plow one acre and himself prepare the seed in his lord's barn. Also three acres extra work and two of grass. If he needs more grass, then he plows for it, as he is allowed. For his plowing rent he plows three acres and sows it from his own barn. And he pays his hearth-penny. Two by two feed one hound, and each peasant gives six loaves to the swineherd when he drives his herd to pasture. On that land where this custom holds it pertains to the peasant that he shall have given to him for his outfit two oxen and one cow and six sheep and seven acres sown on his piece of land. After that year he must perform all services which pertain to him. And he must have given to him tools for his work, and utensils for his house. Then when he dies his lord takes back all.

The land law holds on some lands, but here and there, as I have said, it is heavier or lighter, for all land services are not alike. On some land the peasant must pay honey rent, on some meat rent, on some ale rent. Let him who holds the shire take care that he knows what the old land-right is and what are the customs of the people.

The battle of Brunanburh was fought in 937 by the West-Saxon king against an allied army of Danes, Scots, and Mercians. The following poem describing it was written in Anglo-Saxon and included in the Chronicle.