PANAMA. PAPAL STATES. lar, but the streets are tolerably well ventilated, and it is said to be cleaner than most Spanish American cities. It is encircled by irregular and not very strong fortifications, constructed at different periods. The houses are partly of wood, straw, and other fragile materials; but many are substan tially built of stone, the larger having court yards, or patois, in the old Spanish style. The public edifices are a cathe dral, four convents, a nunnery, and a college; but most of them are falling into ruin, and a large and fine Jesuits' colposed to northerly gales; but Mr. Lloyd says there are a number of islands a short distance from the main land, which afford secure anchorage, and from which supplies of provisions, including excellent water, may usually be obtained. remarkable phenomenon occurs throughout the isthmus, in Near Panama is a considerable extent of cultivated land; but round Porto Bello, and on the E. coast, most part of the surface is uncultivated. their estates chiefly in grass, to save trouble; few of the Elsewhere the landlords keep inhabitants are industrious; and many, indeed, depend almost wholly on the chase. Droves of wild hogs, deer, and a variety of other wild animals, are met with; monkeys are frequently used as food, as are sharks, guanas, &c. Horses are small, but hardy; mules are, however, the favourite beasts of burden, and fetch sometimes 120 dollars each. ca. Panama is still the centre of some trade, not only with &c. Previously to 1740, when the trade with the Pacific the ports on the Pacific, but also with the W. India islands, first began to be carried on round cape Horn, it was the principal entrepôt of trade between Europe and W. Ameridecay has been peculiarly rapid since the independence of From that period, however, it has fallen off; and its S. America, and the opening of the other ports of the Pacific. should a canal or railway be carried across the isthmus, it Its situation is, however, highly favourable; and, will probably attain to greater commercial distinction than ever. about 3 m. to the E. of the present town. The isthmus was formerly famous for its gold mines; but these are now all but exhausted and abandoned. The pearl fishery in the bay of Panama is still carried on, and with some success. The trade of the isthmus, notwithstanding its favourable position, is at a very low ebb. On the Pacific some little traffic is carried on with various ports both N. PANIANY, a commercial town and seaport of British and S.; but, on the Atlantic, almost the only communica-38 m. S. Calicut. It has numerous mosques, being princiIndia, presid. Madras, prov. Malabar, on the Paniany river, tion is with Jamaica and Cartagena. The inhabitants are pally inhabited by Moplays, or fishermen of Arabian desaid to be less advanced in civilization even than their scent. neighbours; and their education and morals seem to be alike bad. The isthmus is divided into seven cantons; Surat, Mocha, Madras, and Bengal. It still exports teak, Before Tippoo Saib captured this town, its trade was very considerable, its merchants trading direct with chief towns, Panama, the capital, Chagres, Porto Bello, cocoa-nuts, iron, and rice; and imports wheat, pulse, sugar, Nata, and Carreto. (Geog. Journal, i., 69-101.) by a bar which only admits boats of small burden. salt, catichu, and spices; but the mouth of its river is closed The isthmus of Panama, from its narrowness, appears, on the map at least, to be the most advantageous point for establishing a direct communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. At first it was supposed that this might be effected by a canal, but the difficulties in the way of such an undertaking would not be easily surmounted; and the general opinion seems to be, that the preferable plan would be to construct a railway from Chagre, on the Carribean sea, across to Panama. It is believed, however, that the project for connecting the two oceans by means of the river San Juan and the lake Nicaragua, presents, on the whole, greater facilities. See NICARAGUA (LAKE OF). the state, and contains 760 sq. m. Watered by Tallahatchee PANOLA, county, Miss. Situated in the N.W. part of river. It contained in 1840, 7353 neat cattle, 1189 sheep, 15,092 swine; and produced 2041 bushels of wheat, 231,250 of tobacco, 463,272 of cotton. It had 13 stores, five gristof Indian corn, 6125 of oats, 3600 of potatoes, 4000 pounds mills, two saw-mills, one tannery; four schools, 92 scholars. Pop.: whites, 2237; slaves, 2415; free coloured, 5; total, 4657. Capital, Panola. PANOLA, p. V., capital of Panola co., Miss., 161 m. N. Jackand contains a courthouse and about 100 inhabitants. son, 939 W. Situated on the S. side of Tallahatchee river, Indianapolis, 625 W. Situated on Lick creek, a beautiful PAOLI, p. v., capital of Orange co., Ia., 94 m. S. by W. mill-stream. It contains a courthouse, jail, a brick seminafactory, two oil-mills, two carding machines, various me ry, six stores, one fulling-mill, two flouring-mills, a cotton by a fertile and highly cultivated country. chanic shops, and about 450 inhabitants. It is surrounded Colony of Darien.-The place marked New-Edinburgh in Arrowsmith's map, on the W. coast of the gulf of Darien, derived its name from its being the site where, in 1698, the Scotch attempted to form a settlement. This colony was projected by a Scotch gentleman of the name of Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England, and was zealously patronised by all classes of his countrymen, who formed a joint stock company, and subscribed large sums to carry the project into effect. It was, however, extremely ill suited for a country in the then situation of Scotland; and provoked the well-founded hostility of the Spaniards, and the bitter, though unreasonable and unfounded, jealousy of the English West India merchants and ship-owners, who either were, or pretended to be, much alarmed lest this new settlement, in an unoccupied and unhealthy country, should seriously injure their commerce and navigation. The selfish opposition of these interested parties to the project having been abetted by the English parliament, the king disavowed the company, and even issued orders to the governors of the West India and American colonies, charging them not to permit any intercourse with the Scotch at Darien! In consequence of these vindictive measures, and of the threatened hostilities of the French and Spaniards, the settlement was abandoned. This event was most acutely felt by the Scotch, whose pride was mortified by the failure of a scheme, of the success of which they had formed the most exaggerated expectations; and many of whom were ruined by the loss of the sums they had embarked in the project. It farther inflamed the existing prejudices against the English, and against the projected union of the two kingdoms, which happily however, was not long after effected. (Laing's History of Scotland, iv., 261-277; Burnett's History of his Own Times, iii., 299, &c., ed. 1753.) PANAMA, a city and seaport of Colombia, repub. New-elevation. The provinces of Perugia, Spoleto, Camerino, Granada, cap. of the above prov., on the Pacific, 43 m. S.E. Chagres, and 480 m. N.W. Bogota. Lat. 80 57' N., long. 79° 30′ W. Pop. about 11,000. It stands on a rocky peninsula, projecting into the bay of Panama, and has a very imposing aspect from the sea. Its plan is not strictly regu the Danube, co. Wesprim, 82 m. S.E. Vienna. Population 540 PAPAL STATES (THE), STATES OF THE CHURCH, ing the greater part of central, with a portion of N., Italy, or POPEDOM, an independent country of Europe, occupybeing principally comprised between lat. 410 and 450 N., and long. 110 and 140 E.; having N. Austrian Italy, from which it is separated by the Po; W. Modena, Tuscany, and the Mediterranean; S. and S.E. the Neapolitan dominion; and N.E. the Adriatic. It is very irregularly shaped; the length of a line drawn from its N. to its S. extremity may population (exclusive of about 10,000 Jews), subdivisions, be about 270 m. &c., see the annexed table. Its breadth is very various. For the area, nearly in their centre, have here an average height of about The Apennines, which intersect the papal territories 4000 feet; but Monte della Sibilla rises to 7210 feet (Braguière); and several other peaks are not greatly inferior in and the others constituting what was formerly called the March of Ancona, are those principally covered with the ramifications of the Apennines, which, in this part of Italy, approach more nearly to the Adriatic than the Mediterranean, leaving, however, an extensive plain on either side: Legation of Boulogne Ferrara PAPAL STATES. Legations, Delegations, &c. Pop. in sq. m. 1833. Comarca di Roma 646 253,456 Rome. 1,425 322,228 Bologna. 1,065 210.883 Ferrara. Forli 1,187 194.3:99 Forli. Ravenna that on the N., between the Po and the Adriatic, comprises the legation of Ferrara, and the greater part of the legations of Bologna, Ravenna, &c. It includes the Valli di Commachio, a very extensive marsh, but, with this exception, is highly fertile and productive. The plain to the S. of the Apennines is of still more ample dimensions, embracing all the vast undulating tract known by the names of the Campagna and Maremme, extending between the declivity of the mountains and the sea from the frontiers of Tuscany on the one hand, to those of Naples on the other. The S. portion of this great plain, or that next Naples, consists of the district called the Pontine Marshes (an. Pomptine Paludes), which, notwithstanding the vast sums expended upon it, is still very imperfectly drained. We have elsewhere fully described the present state of this vast and naturally fruitful plain, famous in antiquity for its fertility, but now, unhappily, the seat of pestilence and death. (See ante, p. 51.) pagna to its present all but desert state. (See antè, p. 51.) of malaria is, that sandy ridge gradually thrown up on both The Po, which forms their N. boundary, is the largest river of the Papal states; but by far the most celebrated is the Tiber. The latter rises at St. Albonigo in Tuscany, and runs generally S. or S.E., but with a very tortuous course, to within about 25 m. N.N.E. Rome, whence it flows most-density, the rental rises to perhaps 20 scudi per hectare, for ly S.S.W. to its mouth in the Mediterranean, 15 m. below Rome, after an entire course of about 200 m. Before entering the sea the Tiber divides into two arms, enclosing the small island of Isola sacra. At Rome the greatest breadth of the Tiber is only about 400 feet, or scarcely one third part of the breadth of the Thames at Blackfriars bridge, and nearly approaching that of the Seine at Paris. It is justly entitled to its ancient epithet flavus, being almost constantly loaded with yellow mud, from the crumbling and disintegration of its banks. Its principal affluents are the Topino, Nar, and Teverone on the left or E., and the Chiana on the right bank. It is navigable for boats to near Perugia. Except the Tiber, no river of any consequence falls into the Mediterranean in this part of Italy. The country to the E. of the Apennines has, however, a great number of rivers, though none of them be of any very considerable magnitude, falling partly into the Po and partly into the Adriatic. Several of the most celebrated Italian lakes are in the Papal states, as those of Perugia (an. Lacus Thrasimenus), Bolsena, and Bracciano (which see). The lakes of Vico, Albano, Nemi, Gabii, &c., though insignificant in point of size, are interesting from the classical associations with which they are connected. They are situated in a mountain region, and evidently occupy the craters of extinct vol canoes. Geology. The primary rocks in the Apennine region consist mostly of serpentine, mica, clay-slate, and quartz. Gneiss is met with in various places along the coast. Mountain limestone is frequent, and indeed a large portion of the country consists of calcareous formations; but the region round the capital is of volcanic origin, and abounds with volcanic products, as sulphur, alum, &c. Rome is principally built of volcanic tufa, which composes the general soil of the Campagna. Some sulphur springs also exist at Poretta. N. of the Apennines, and various kinds of mineral springs are common elsewhere. Climate. In the legations N. of the Apennines the ther-posed to have a resident population of more than 16,000 or mometer often sinks in winter to 100 Reaumur, and oranges, lemons, &c., do not flourish in the open air. But the greater portion of the Papal states is situated within the second Italian region. Vegetation is here scarcely interrupted at any period of the year. The air in the mountain districts is pure and salubrious; but the plains of Ferrara and Bologna, the Campagna di Roma, and the Pontine Marshes, are at that season very unhealthy: the latter especially are subject to malaria. The origin of malaria, has been a subject of much dispute, and we have already noticed some of the circumstances that have conspired to reduce the Cam 18,000 inhabitants, mostly wandering shepherds. There is on each estate a casale, or large building, where the implements of husbandry are kept; but neither bakehouses nor kitchen gardens exist throughout the whole tract, the labourers being wholly supplied at a few scattered depôts with provisions, sent thither from Rome. The shepherds are in about as depressed a condition as possible; they have a sickly, cadaverous appearance; their clothing consists principally of sheep-skins, worn with the wool outside; and they sleep either on the ground in the open air, or in some of the ruins with which the country is strewed. They are PAPAL STATES. paid, not in money, but in cattle pastured with those of the farmer. The harvests in the Campagna are reaped by peasants from distant mountainous districts, who come to it in companies of from 20 to 100 individuals. Even in favourable seasons, or part of their number are attacked by fever; and in unhealthy seasons, the proportion is much larger. Many die in the hospitals of Rome, or in the Campagna; others perish on the road home; and others again return condemned to pass the remainder of their days a prey to intermittent fever, or other diseases brought on by the climate and yet such is the poverty of the population in the mountainous districts, that the chance of realising a few scudi continually tempts new adventurers to undergo the same risks. tolerably well cultivated in the vicinity of Velletri; the plants in regular lines being tied to treillages of large reeds; but the most esteemed growths are the light, white, museadel wines of Orvieto and Montefiascone, near Viterbo; they do not, however, bear transport well, and are seldom met with out of the country. The timber of the dense forests in the deleg. of Viterbo is not turned to much account from the distance of markets, and is cut principally for smelting iron ore, making charcoal, &c. Cork trees abound in the country about Cisterna, Velletri, &c. The rearing of live stock is, as has been said, the principal branch of rural industry. The number of sheep in the Papal states is estimated at 2,000,000. There are two varieties; the negretti, a small, short-legged variety, in every In 1800, on the estate of Prince Rospigliosi at Zagarolo, respect resembling the breed of Dauphiny, except that their land was let out at a low fixed rate in lots of a rubbio each wool, though good, is chocolate-coloured; and the pouille, (about 44 acres) to the peasantry to cultivate as they a variety with a wool of a whiteness almost equalling that pleased; and this plan, it is alleged, had the best results. of the breed of Aragon. Still, however, it would seem Cultivation extended for a considerable distance round Za- from the statements of Serristori that the total quantity of garolo into the plain beneath; and the climate of the neigh- all sorts of wool exported from the Papal states does not exbourhood was improved. Were such a plan followed round ceed 800,000 lbs. a year, sent to Tuscany, Piedmont, France, the other centres of civilization, a considerable portion of and England. The ewes are mostly kept for their milk, and the Campagna would, probably, soon lose a portion of its the greater part of the lambs are killed, the mutton not being desolate and pestilential character, but neither the proprie- good. About 1,000,000 lbs. cheese and 400,000 lamb-skins tors nor farmers show, in general, much disposition for are annually exported, principally to the other states of Itachange or improvement; and till the government and pub-ly. Cattle breeding is extensively carried on in the marshlic economy of the state be completely changed, it were idle es of the Po, in the provinces Bologna, Perugia, &c.; and to expect that they should evince any such disposition. In about 40,000 oxen are exported. Many buffaloes and hogs order to arrest the depopulation of the Campagna, Pope are kept in the marshes; and about 100,000 ox and buffalo Pius VII., in 1802, laid an impost of five pauli per rubbio on skins are annually exported. The horses are mostly of good the uncultivated land immediately round the towns, and breeds, and are exported to Tuscany and Lombardy. Goats deducted five pauli per rubbio from the tax on cultivated are extensively reared, their flesh and lamb being the prinlands. But this miserable attempt to extend industry by cipal animal food. In Perugia and other delegs. great numfiscal regulations (though it appears to be approved by M. bers of poultry, and in Forli, Macerata, &c., many bees are Sismond) necessarily failed. The regulation, which never kept. (Châteauvieux, Italy and its Agric.; Bowring's was acted upon, speedily became obsolete; and the pea- Report on the Roman States; Graham; Simond; Sismonsantry of the Campagna generally remain in the same con- di; Etudes sur l'Economie Politique; Serristori, Statist. dition as before the French invasion. (Sismondi, Etudes d'Italia, part. vi.) sur l'Economie Politique, ii. 12-128.) In the mountainous parts of the Papal states, where the country is divided into small farms, and rather thickly in habited, pease, beans, and kitchen vegetables, which form a large proportion of the food of the peasantry, occupy most part of the land; the remainder being appropriated to wheat, maize, &c. Little skill is evinced in agriculture; the crops being generally raised only for the supply of the cultivators, no one thinks of raising those products for which his land may be the best fitted, till after he has provided an adequate supply of grain or other produce for the use of his family. In the mountains near Rome, white crops are taken from the grounds for two or three years successively, without any manure being applied to the land; three crops of wheat may be succeeded by maize or kidney beans for two years, and once in five or six years, a crop of hemp or flax is perhaps raised. The grain is trodden out by horses, and winnowed by hand, immediately after harvest. The wages of a man in harvest time, amount at Poli, to about two pauls a day, with bread and piquette, or weak wine; but they are generally higher the nearer the district to the capital. The herdsmen in the Apennines take charge of the cattle belonging to many different persons, and tend them on the mountains, night and day, receiving at the end of the season payment from each proprietor, at the rate of two scudi per month for every score of cattle. Besides bread and piquette, the food of the peasantry in the mountains principally consists of cheese from goats' or ewes' milk, onions, garlick, and other vegetables, and polenta, a kind of hasty pudding, made with maize, pulse, &c. Goats' flesh and pork are sometimes eaten by the labourers, but very little other animal food. (Graham's Three Months in the Mountains, 7-56; &c.) The fisheries on the coast are almost wholly conducted by Neapolitan fishermen. Mining industry is also at a very low ebb. The government works the mines of alum at Tolfa, but the rest are left to private speculators. Iron ore is pretty abundant in some places, but only a few traces of other metals have been discovered. About 4,000,000 lbs of sulphur are raised in Romagna at Pesaro, &c.; and 100,000 lbs. of vitriol at Viterbo, half of which is exported. Lime, building stone, potters' clay, variegated and statuary marbles, fuller's earth, bitumen, naphtha, and coal are met with; but the last, though under the French it was raised in considerable quantities, is no longer made use of. From 70 to 80 million pounds of salt are annually made at Cervia, Commachio, Corneto, and Ostia, rather more than the half of which is sent to the adjacent states. Manufactures, though in the most depressed and backward state, serve almost entirely for home consumption. Woollen fabrics are the principal, and include cloths, cassimeres, serges, woollen caps, blankets, and carpets. Rome, Spoleto, Matalien, Perugia, Norcia, &c., are the chief places in which these are made; but since their manufacture has ceased to be bolstered up by government premiums, their production has greatly diminished, and their total yearly value does not exceed 300,000 scudi. Hats, of the value of 200,000 scudi, are made principally at Rome; good felt cloth at Fabriano; silk goods at Rome, Bologna, Camerino, Perugia, Pessaro, &c.; leather and gloves at Rome; and paper, about 3,600,000 lbs. a year, are the other most prominent manufactures. Bologna was formerly famous for its crapes, but the value of the exports of these does not now exceed 30,000 sc. a year. The iron furnaces are estimated to yield 18,000,000 lbs. pig, and about 2,000,000 lbs. a year bar iron; rasps, files, nails, needles, pins, screws, &c., are made in various towns; glassware, to the value of 90,000 scudi, copper goods to 80,000 do.; earthenware to about 150,000 do., &c. Roman musical strings enjoy a high and deserved celebrity, and are exported to most countries of Europe. The most flourishing branch of manufacture is the refining of sulphur, a product which, under a free system, might be supplied in unlimited quantities. (Serristöri, Statistica,; Bowring, &c.) Such is the meagre catalogue of Papal manufactures. Many a town of Great Britain, of only 30,000 inhabitants, produces a greater quantity of manufactured goods than the 3,000,000 inhabitants of the Pontifical states! Notwithstanding the enormous sacrifices made by the Papal government, the protections, the prohibitions, the premiums given for the encouragement of what is called native industry, scarcely a valuable discovery has been introduced: the woollen spinning, in some cases by " The provinces of Ferrara, Bologna, Romagna, and those forming the March of Ancona, produce rye, wheat, barley, and maize in abundance. Rice is grown in the legations of Ferrara and Bologna, but there only. Hemp and flax are cultivated along the Adriatic; and saffron, coriander, aniseed, woad, and great quantities of kitchen vegetables in the same districts and the N. provinces. The export of hemp is supposed to average 30,000,000 lbs. a year. Tobacco is grown in several places, especially at Chiaravalle, near Ancona; but being a government monopoly, its culture is confined within narrow limits; Serristori states that for 300,000 lbs. of tobacco exported, 1,000,000 lbs. are imported. The sugar-cane, indigo, and cotton, are cultivated near Terracina, though neither are grown to any great extent. Olive plantations were long among the most productive investiments; but they are now less so than those of the white mulberry. The olive is abundant in the S. pro-hand, in others by machinery, is far behind its state in Engvinces; and though the Roman oil be badly made, and mostly consumed at home, a million lbs. have occasionally been exported in favourable years. Vineyards are said not to yield returns proportioned to the outlay. The vine is 542 land, Belgium, Prussia, or France. The looms, such as were generally employed during the 14th century, are little better than those used by the Indians of the Deccan; the rowing and carding are wholly done by solitary workmen PAPAL STATES. and with the ancient teasels and hand cards; the shearing with the antique hand shears, such as have been employed from immemorial time; and in some places the fulling is performed by men employed to trample on the cloth, a process probably not now to be found in any other part of the civilized world." (Bowring's Rep., p. 84.) Commerce. From the circumstance of the Apennines dividing the country into two portions, between which there is little communication, some provinces are exporting while others are importing the same kinds of produce. The N. provinces have generally a superabundance of corn, while in the S. provinces the crops are insufficient for home consumption. On the other hand, oil is exported from the S., while in the N. legations, the Marche, &c., 3,000,000 lbs. are annually imported from S. Italy and Tuscany. Besides the articles of export previously specified, about 3,000,000 lbs. rags are sent every year from the N. legations, partly to Genoa as manure for orange trees; planks are sent to Spain, France, and America; organzined silk, about 200,000 lbs., chiefly to France and England; about 450,000 lbs. linseed; 3,000,000 lbs. charcoal; 1,000,000 lbs. potash, with vinegar, cork bark, tartar, woad, tallow, bones, honey, works of art and antiquities, are the other principal exports. The imports, in addition to those already noticed, are raw sugar, about 10,000,000 lbs. a year, and other colonial products from England and France, coarse wool for mattresses, cheese and butter from Lombardy, salt fish, pilchards, &c., from England, to the amount of 8,700,000 lbs. a year; about 2,000,000 lbs. of iron ore from Elba, and the same quantity of lead annually from England, and metals and manufactured goods of most kinds from N. and W. Europe. (Serristori, Statistica d'Italia.) Serristori estimates the total annual value of the imports at nearly 7,000,000 and that of the exports at above 5,000,000 scudi. The importation of salt, tobacco, alum, and some other kinds of native produce, including wheat when the price is under 14 scudi the rubbio on the Mediterranean, or 12 scudi on the Adriatic, is prohibited; as is the export of hempseed and wheat, when the price is above 16 scudi in the Mediterranean, and 14 scudi in the Adriatic ports, and other grains in proportion. The importation of such books as would communicate any useful information, as to politics, political economy, or philosophy, is of course absolutely forbidden. Notwithstand ing the low state of manufacturing industry, high duties are levied on manufactured goods when imported. Woollen cloth, woollen and cotton fabrics, and cambrics, pay 100 scudi; dye or stamped cottons, 50 scudi; and porcelain, 20 scudi per 100 lbs. The principal seats of the foreign trade are Ancona and Civita Vecchia. In 1838, 1292 ships, of the aggregate burden of 66,828 tons, with cargoes of the value of 1,109,300 scudi, cleared from the former port; and in 1837, 1520 ships, burden 133,402 tons, cleared out of the latter. (Parl. Reports, 1838; Bowring's Reports, &c.) Accounts are kept in scudi (crowns), 4s. 34d. each, and divided into 10 paoli and 100 bajocchi. The Roman libbra or pound of 12 oncie and 288 danarinearly 12 oz. avoirdupois. The barile of wine, of 32 boccali, and 128 fogliette= about 13 gallons; the barile of oil contains only 28 boccali. The Roman foot=117 English inches; the palmo of architects about 8 inches; the Roman mile=1628 English yards. Generally the measures of Rome have less capacity than those of the N. legations. The Government is wholly ecclesiastical, no one being eligible to fill any civil office who has not attained the rank of abbot. The pope enacts all laws, and nominates to all clerical appointments. He is assisted, however, by the high college of cardinals, comprising about 70 members; and the different branches of the government are conducted each by Congregations, with a cardinal at its head. Each legat. and deleg. is governed by a cardinal, assisted by two assessors, and a council of four individuals nominated by the pope, half of whom are changed every five years. The jurisdiction of the temporal nobles is provisionally retained in some provinces, but all the judicial officers of the nobility must be confirmed by the pope, and are subject to the general laws. In each cap. of a deleg. there is a tribunal of primary jurisdiction, which also decides in appeal on certain matters that first come before the district officers. The proceedings in these courts are public, but there is no jury. There are four courts of appeal, one at Bologna, one at Macerata, and two in Rome; and a supreme tribunal of final resort, that of Uditore Santissima, with a single judge; nine tribunals of commerce also exist. Every town has its own jurisdiction and magistracy, and a municipal court of from 18 to 48 members, according to the population. The laws in force are 1 ominally those of the Justinian code; but the pope has po ver to alter or annul any previous law, and, which is inc mparably worse, the provincial judges have extensive discretionary powers. Criminal proceedings in the Papal states are very dilatory; and in all cases the accused is thrown into prison, whence there is no liberation on bail. In 1832, 2708 criminals were confined in the vari |ous prisons, of whom 580 had been convicted of homicide" 384 of other offences against the person, 295 of burglary and 1072 of other offences against property, and 76 of state offences. Brigandage is less frequent than formerly; and the government has stationed five military posts along the road from Velletro to Terracina, for the protection of travellers. Still, however, the police and the law are equally defective; and assassinations and other crimes of violence are daily taking place without the perpetrators being ever brought to justice. The whole frame of government is, in fact, a tissue of abuses. On the fall of Napoleon, the alienation of church domains was confirmed; but the compensation since made to their former owners, and the restoration of suppressed churches and convents, have cost the government prodigious sums, and are the principal causes of the wretched state of the finances. (Von Raumer's Italy.) Within the limits of the Papal states there are no fewer than eight archbishops' and 59 bishops' sees; and it is estimated that in Rome there is a clergyman for every ten families. It is needless to add that this superabundance of priests, instead of promoting religion and morality, is, in fact, a principal cause of their low state in the city. The outward deportment of the papal court is, however, at present highly decorous. "Those times so disastrous and disgraceful, when the popes had so many nephews, and those nephews built so many splendid palaces and villas, called by the Romans, in derision, 'miracles of St. Peter,' are now almost as much forgotten in Rome, as the times when horses were made consuls, and eunuchs emperors." (Lyman's Polit. State of Italy.) Public Instruction.-There are two chief universities-in Rome and in Bologna-each having at least 38 professorships; and six universities of secondary rank-at Ferrara, Perugia, Camerino, Macerata, Fermo, and Urbino-each at least with 17 professors. The university of Rome was, in 1839, attended by 843 students (Serristori); that of Bologna, which ranks, in Italy, second only to Pavia, is usually attended by from 500 to 600 students; that of Perugia by about 300; and those of Camerino, Macerata, and Urbina, by about 200 each. Altogether, upwards of 2600 students annually attend the universities. (Journal of Education, viii., 209.) There are various other high colleges in Rome, &c., the principal of which is the Gregorian (see Rome). Secondary schools exist in most towns; but there is no general system of elementary instruction, and it has been estimated that only 1 in 60 of the population attend public schools. The truth is, that education in the Papal states is in the most degraded state imaginable. It is wholly in the hands of the clergy; and is conducted on the principle, if we may so call it, of imbuing the pupils with the grossest prejudices, and of proscribing every study or pursuit that might tend to expand or enlighten their minds, or make them acquainted with their rights and duties. The university education, excepting, perhaps, in so far as respects medicine, is altogether contemptible. Even theology is not efficiently taught; and philosophy, politics, and political economy are as little relished in Rome as in Morocco. The censorship of the press is severe in the extreme; and the gazettes published in the different towns insert nothing not approved by the censors. The journals, of which there are several, devoted to belles lettres, antiquities, the fine arts, &c., being under a less severe surveillance, occasionally display originality and learning; but the literature of the Roman states is like their government, emasculated and imbecile. "The Eternal city prohibits all the best works on mental philosophy. She has not one_eminent man of science; and if she had a Cuvier or a Buckland, she would not permit him to lecture or to publish his discoveries to the world till they had been subjected to the pruning knife of some ignorant censor. The apathy and timidity, the dread of independent thinking and free inquiry manifested by the Papal government, seems, however, to admit of easy explanation. Its dogmas, its rites, its principles of action were framed in accordance with the opinions of the 12th century. It does make some changes silently, by dropping a few untenable pretensions; but it can make no great and marked change without abandoning its professed character of being the depository of immutable truth. The rulers of Rome, therefore, finding themselves unable to raise up their old institutions to the level of modern knowledge, endeavour to keep down this knowledge to the level of their institutions. They see the props and stays of their system dropping off, and one source of influence failing after another, and their prudence counsels them to shut out, as far as they can, the light which is sapping their authority, and to look upon innovations, even of the most harmless kind, with suspicion. They are religious Conservatives in the strictest sense of the term." (Maclaren's Notes on Italy, p. 97.) Charitable Institutions.-The Papal states are literally overrun with all kinds of charitable institutions. In Rome, especially, the sums expended on charitable foundations PAPAL STATES. are, in proportion to its extent, twice as large as in Paris; so that, as Serristori exclaims, "Dovrebbe credersi che negli Stati Pontefici, e molto più in Roma non esistesse mendicita." (Statist. p. 39.) But nowhere are the pernicious consequences of indiscriminate charity better exemplified than in the Roman states, where mendicity, wretchedness, and want prevail to a frightful extent. The universality of beggary removes all sense of shame; and a large proportion of the population are degraded enough to prefer subsisting on alins to making any attempts to provide for themselves. There is a monté-di-pieta, or government pawnbroking establishment, with a capital of 230.000 scudi, in Rome; and others in most of the principal cities; where also savings banks have been established with considerable success. (Bowring's Rep., p. 88-90.) The army, if so it may be called, is under the direction of a cardinal-president, and a board of three general officers; and consisted, in 1840, of a permanent force of 14,680 men. (9300 infantry, 800 cavalry, &c.); and a body of reserve and national guard, together amounting to 9000 men. straits, separating it from Australia. It is indented by sev eral deep bays; but even its coast line is in many parts unknown, and its interior has been but little explored, and is, in fact, a terra incognita. The coast, viewed from the sea, rises gradually into hills of considerable elevation; but no mountains of any remarkable height have yet been discovered. The whole island being covered with palm trees and timber of a large size, little can be said respecting its soil, which, however, is presumed to be fertile. The cocoa-nut, the two species of the bread-fruit tree, pine-apples, and plantains are found here: nutmeg-trees also grow wild; but it is not known whether they produce good spice. It is said that there are no quadrupeds in Papua, except dogs, wild cats, and hogs; and that to the E. of Gilolo no horned animals of any description are found. The woods abound with wild hogs, which the natives kill with spears and bows and arrows, in the use of which they are very expert. There is reason to believe that gold is found in the interior of the island. The natives of Papua appear to consist of two distinct races; those in the W. being identical with the negroes of the E. archipelago, while the inhabitants of the The principal fortresses garrisoned by the pope are those E. part of the island belong rather to the sallow complexof Rome, Civita Vecchia, Urbino, castle Franco, Terracina, ioned long-haired natives of the South sea islands (see and Ancona: by the treaty of Vienna, the emperor of Aus- POLYNESIA). The Papuan negroes, of whom a brief notice tria has the right to garrison Ferrara and Commachio. The is given in the art. ARCHIPELAGO, EASTERN (i., 142), connaval force consists of a solitary ship of war, manned by tinue, for the most part, in their original state of nakedness 33 men. (Almanach de Gotha, 1840; Oudinot, Italie et ses and barbarism, devoid of homes or clothing, and subsisting Forces Milit. ; &c.) principally on the precarious produce of the chase, or on The taxes are very heavy, and are imposed in the worst the spontaneous products of the forests. On the N.W. possible manner. The principal consists of a land tax; coast, which has been the most frequently visited by Euroheavy duties are also laid on most articles consumed in peans, the dwellings of the natives are raised on posts, as in towns and villages; and all sorts of grain, except rye, other parts of the archipelago and among the ultra-Ganmaize, barley, and oats, pay a heavy tax when ground at getic nations of the Asiatic continent. These tenements acthe mill. Salt, tobacco, alum, and vitriol, are monopolies in commodate many families, who live in cabins on either side the hands of government. The customs' duties are proba- of a wide common hall that occupies the centre of the buildbly, however, on the whole, the most oppressive and in- ing. The cabins are miserably furnished; a mat or two, a jurious. The lottery, also, notwithstanding its demoral-fire-place, an earthen pot, with perhaps a china plate or izing influence, is a fertile source of revenue; and con- basin, and some sago flour. As they cook in each cabin, tributes, in fact, about one tenth part of the entire public and have no chimney, the smoke issues at every part of the roof; and at a distance the whole building seems to be on fire. Their clothes are very scanty, but they contrive to bedizen themselves so as to attract the attention of European observers. Their hair is not so short, close, and woolly as that of the African negro, and they wear it bushed out round their heads to the circumference of 24 and 3 ft.; and, to make it more extensive, comb it out horizontally, occasionally adorning it with feathers. revenue! The public revenue and expenditure was as follows in 1835: Postoffice Lotteries Various sources. . Scudi. 285,277 580.329 79,071 153,460 596,011 495,020 .2,547,555 Revenue. Expenditure. Direct taxes Scudi 2,6 3,358 4,351,038 Treasury charges do Stamps and registry. 577,910 Stamps, &c. do 238.065 Postoffice. 896,266 Lotteries. 42,324 Papal household Interest on debt .1,344,564 But according to the Alm. de Gotha, 1841, the accounts for the preceding year were more satisfactory. History.-The rise of the Popedom as a temporal power, dates from 755, when Pepin, king of the Franks, invested the pope with the exarchate of Ravenna; to which Charlemagne added the provinces of Perugia and Spoleto. Benevento was given to the pope by the emperor Henry III. in 1053; and in 1102 the marchioness Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the holy see the provinces forming the "Patrimony of St. Peter." In 1297, Forli and the rest of Romagna, and, in 1364, Bologna, became portions of the Papal dominion; and at the end of the 14th century the pope ac quired full jurisdiction over Rome and Sabina. Ferrara was acquired in 1598, Urbino in 1626, and Orvieto, in 1649. The French invaded the states of the church in 1797, after which the N. legations were annexed to the Cisalpine republic. In 1798, Rome was taken by the French, and in 1810 the whole of the Papal states were included in the kingdom of Italy. Since 1815, most part of the pope's former dominions have been restored; but his authority, especially in the N. legations, is far from being well established, and his power as a temporal prince, depends wholly on the support given him by Austria. (Percival, Hist. of Italy; Sismondi; Maclaren, Notes on Italy; Von Raumer's Italy and the Italians, &c.) PAPUA, or NEW GUINEA, a very large island, or perhaps a dense cluster of islands, in the E. archipelago, third division; between the equator and the 9th deg. of S. lat., and the 130th and 150th degs. of E. long.; having N. and E. the Pacific ocean, W. and S. W. the sea in which Gilolo, Ceram, the Aroo isles &c., are situated, and S. Torres 544 The men in general wear a portion of the inner bark of the cocoa-nut tree, resembling a coarse kind of cloth, fastened round the middle; and the women use blue Surat baftas in a similar manner. Boys and girls go entirely naked till puberty. All are fond of glass and coloured china beads, and wear them about their wrist, &c. The women, as gen. erally happens among savages, lead a laborious life; and Forrest says that he has often seen them labouring hard in fixing posts in the ground for stages, in making mats, or in forming pieces of clay into earthen pots, while the men were sauntering about. In the interior the inhabitants are supposed to practise gardening and some sort of agriculture, as they supply the inhabitants, on the coast with food, in exchange for axes, knives, and other coarse cutlery. The natives on the coast purchase these from the Malays and the Chinese, particu larly the latter, from whom they also buy blue and red cloths. In exchange, the Chinese carry back missoy bark, slaves, ambergris, sea slug (biche de mer), tortoise-shell, small pearls, birds of paradise, and many other species of dead birds, which the Papuas have a particular method of dressing. The Dutch may have some trade with Papua; but Mr. Earl says that no intercourse whatever takes place between it and the British settlements in Australia. Singapore, or elsewhere in the east. The inhabitants of the more westerly islands of the E. archipelago buy the Papuans for slaves; and the natives of the W. coast of Papun make slaves of those of the E., and sell them to strangers. With a similar view, probably, they were formerly, and perhaps still are, accustomed to assemble in great numbers, and make war on the inhabitants of Gilolo, Ceram, Ambloo, and other islands still farther W. The Arabians, in their early voyages, appear to have come into contact with the Papuans, whom they constantly describe as cannibals. Papua was discovered by Europeans in 1511, and frequently resorted to by the Portuguese during the 16th century. Toward the end of the 18th century Forrest, McCluer, and other British navigators vis ted it; since which it has been but little noticed. PARA, formerly called Belem, a city and seaport of Brazil, cap. prov. of same name at the confluence of a considerable river, with the great æstuary of the Toceantins, or Rio Para, on its S. side, opposite the island of Joanes or |