groups: thus, a i u n―ri lṛi k―e o n-ai au ć—h y v r t―l n—n m n⋅ ņ n m—jh bh n―gh ḍh dh sh―j bg ḍ d ś— kh ph ćh th th & t t v―k p yś sh s r—h l. By taking the first letter of any series and joining it to the last of any other series various classes of letters are designated; thus al is the technical name for the whole alphabet; hal for all the consonants; ać the vowels; ak all the simple vowels; an the vowels a, i, u, short or long; eć the diphthongs; yan the semivowels; jaś the soft consonants g, j, d, d, b; jhas the same with their aspirates; jhash the soft aspirates alone; yar all the consonants except h; jhal all the consonants except the nasals and semivowels; jhar all the consonants except the aspirate, nasals, and semivowels. ACCENTUATION. 24. Accentuation in Sanskrit is only marked in the Vedas. Only three names for the accents are generally recognised by grammarians; viz. 1. Udátta, ‘raised,' i. e. the elevated or high tone, marked in Roman writing by the acute accent; 2. Anudátta, 'not raised,' i. e. the low or grave tone; 3. Svarita, ‘sounded,' i. e. the sustained tone, neither high nor low, but a combination of the two (samáhára, Páṇ. I. 2. 32) which is thus produced. In pronouncing the syllable immediately following the high-toned syllable, the voice unable to lower itself abruptly to the level of the low intonation, is sustained in a tone not as high as the udátta, and yet not so low as the anudátta. A syllable uttered with this sustained mixed intonation is said to be svarita, sounded.' These three accents, according to native grammarians, are severally produced, through intensifying, relaxing, and sustaining or throwing out the voice (áyáma viśrambha ákshepa); and these operations are said to be connected with an upward, downward, and horizontal motion (tiryag-gamana) of the organs of utterance, which may be illustrated by the movements of the hand in conducting a musical performance *. But although there are only three recognised names for the accents, there are in reality four tones. This may be proved (as Prof. Roth observes) by any one who tries to adjust the exact relationship between the sounds of the three accents above described. If they are arranged in regular musical series or progression, one link will be found wanting. The udátta and svarita are names for (so to speak) positive sounds, and the anudátta for negative; but the neutral, general, accentless sound, which may be compared to a flat horizontal line, and lies as it were between the positive and negative, remains undesignated. Those grammarians, such as Pánini, who recognise only three names for the accents, apply the name anudátta to this neutral accentless sound also. Hence this name becomes unsuited to the low tone, properly so called, i. e. the tone which immediately precedes the high and is lower than the flat horizontal line taken to represent the general accentless sound. The fact is that the exertion * In native grammars the udátta sound of a vowel is said to result from employing the upper half of the organs of utterance, and the anudátta from employing the lower half. D required to produce the high tone (udátta) is so great that in order to obtain the proper pitch, the voice is obliged to lower the tone of the preceding syllable as much below this flat line as the syllable that bears the udátta is raised above it; and Pánini himself explains this lower tone by the term sannatara (for which the commentators have substituted the expression anudáttatara), while he explains the neutral accentless tone by the term eka-śruti (called in the Prátiśákhyas praćaya or pracita), i. e. the one monotonous sound in which the ear can perceive no variation. We have therefore really four tones in Sanskrit, and four expressions are now usually adopted to correspond. The name anudátta is confined to the neutral, indifferent, accentless or monotonous tone represented by the flat horizontal line. The expression anudáttatara has been adopted to designate the lowest sound of all or that immediately preceding the udátta, while the svarita (which in some respects corresponds with the Greek circumflex) denotes the mixed sustained sound which follows the udátta. 25. The three accents are thus marked in the Rig-veda. When a syllable having a horizontal mark underneath (anudáttatara) is followed by one bearing no mark, the one bearing no mark is udátta; and when followed by two syllables, bearing no mark, both are udátta. The svarita accent is denoted by a small perpendicular stroke above the syllable. Thus in the word the syllable is anudáttatara, is udátta, and T is svarita. In the Pada text (if anudáttatara be admitted) the horizontal stroke under a syllable may mark both the anudátta or neutral tone, and the anudáttatara or low tone; and if it extend under all the syllables of the same word, the whole word is anudátta accentless, thus . In the Samhitá, the stroke underneath marks the anudáttatara and all such anudátta syllables as precede the first anudáttatara syllable, but in the remainder of the sentence the absence of accent (anudátta) is denoted by the absence of all mark after the svarita until the next anudáttatara. In fact all the syllables (in a word or sentence) which follow the svarita are supposed to be pronounced in the accentless tone until the anudáttatara mark under a syllable appears again; so that the absence of mark may denote both udátta and anudátta. Properly, therefore, the anudáttatara mark is the beginning of a series of three accents, of which the svarita is the end; the appearance of this mark preparing the reader for an udátta immediately following, and a svarita. The latter, however, may sometimes be retarded by a new udátta syllable. Moreover, the svarita mark does not always imply an anudáttatara mark preceding, as in the word at the beginning of a line, where the svarita merely shows that the first syllable is udátta. Again, in the Pada, where each word stands separately, there may be no svarita following an udátta, as . It must also be borne in mind that where a svarita is immediately followed by an udátta syllable, the svarita becomes changed to anudáttatara: thus in f the svarita of becomes so changed, because of the udátta following. Again, as to the scarita mark, it may either indicate a dependent svarita, or an independent, i. e. either a svarita produced by an udátta immediately preceding, or a svarita produced by the suppression of a syllable bearing the udátta, as in contracted from, where the middle syllable is properly udátta. In the latter case, if the syllable bearing the svarita is long, and another word follows beginning with an udátta, then that syllable and all preceding syllables in the same word receive the anudáttatara mark, and the figure 3 is inserted to carry the svarita, having also the anudáttatara mark beneath; thus RA. If the syllable bearing the independent svarita be short, then the figure 9 carries the svarita, with an anudáttatara under it; thus Observe-The accent in Sanskrit is not confined to the last three syllables of a word, as in Greek and Latin. Observe also, that although the Sanskrit independent svarita is in some respects similar to the Greek circumflex, it should be borne in mind, that the latter is confined to long syllables, whereas the svarita may also be applied to short *. OF THE INDIAN METHOD OF WRITING. 26. According to Hindú grammarians every syllable ought to end in a vowel †, and every final consonant ought to be attracted to the beginning of the next syllable; so that where a word ends in a consonant, that consonant ought to be pronounced with the initial letter of the next word. Hence in some Sanskrit MSS. all the syllables are separated by slight spaces, and in others all the words are joined together without any separation. Thus the two words आसीद राजा úsid rājā would in some books be written आ सी द्रा जा and in others. In Sanskrit works printed in Europe, the common practice is to separate only those words the final or initial letter of which are not acted on by the rules of combination. In such books ásíd rájá would be written together,, because the final is the result of an euphonic change from 7, caused by the following r. There seems, however, but little reason for considering the mere spaces left between the words of a sentence to be incompatible with the operation of euphonic laws; especially as the * See on the subject of Vedic accentuation, Roth's preface to the Nirukta: two treatises by Whitney in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. IV. p. 195 etc., and V. p. 387 etc.: Aufrecht, de accentu compositorum Sanscriticorum, Bonnae, 1847; reviewed by Benfey, Göttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1848, p. 1995— 2010. + Unless it end in Anusvára or Visarga ḥ, which in theory are the only consonantal sounds allowed to close a syllable. That Anusvára is not a full consonant is proved by the fact that it does not impede the operation of rule 70. absence of such spaces must always cause more or less impediment even to the fluent reader. Therefore in many books recently printed in Europe, every uncompounded word capable of separation by the use of the Viráma is separated. Thus pitur dhanam ádadáti is written पितुर् धनम् आददाति, and not पितुर्धनमाददाति. The only cases in which separation is undesirable, are where the final vowel of one word blends with the initial vowel of the next into one long similar or dissimilar vowel, and where final u and i are changed into their corresponding semivowels v and y. The following words and passages in the Sanskrit and English character, are given that the Student, before proceeding further in the Grammar, may exercise himself in reading the letters and in transliteration; that is to say, in turning Sanskrit letters into the English equivalents, and rice versa. To be turned into English letters. अक, अज, अश, आस, आप, इल, इष, ईड, ईर, उख, उच, ऊह, ऋण, ऋज, एध, ओख, कण, कित, कुमार, क्षम, क्षिप, क्षुध, क्षै, क्लप, खन, खिद, गाह, गुज, गृध, गृ, घृण, घुष, चकास, चक्ष, चित, छिद, छो, जीवा, झष, टीका, ठः, डीनं, ढौक, दि, तापः, तडागः, दया, दमकः, दशरथः, दुरालापः, देव, धूपिका, धृतः, नटः, नील, नेम, परिदानं, पुरुषस्, पौरः, पौरुषेयी, पुरोडाशः, बहुः, बालकस्, भोगः, भोजनं, मुखं, मृगः, मेदस्, मेदिनी, यकृत्, यकृत्, योगः, रेणु, रेचक, रै, रैवत, रुजा, रूपं, रुरुदिषु, लोह, रुरुदिषु, लोह, वामः, वैरं, वैरं, शक्, शौरः, षट्, साधुः, हेमकूटः, हेमन् J To be turned into Sanskrit letters. Ada, asa, ali, ádi, ákhu, ágas, iti, ísah, íhá, udára, upanishad, uparodha, úru, úsha, rishi, eka, kakud, katu, koshah, gaura, ghata, taitya, tet, chalam, jetri, jhiri, tagara, damara, dhála, nama, tatas, tathó, trina, tushaira, deha, daitya, dharala, nanu, nayanam, nidanam, pitri, bhauma, bheshajam, marus, mahat, yuga, rush, ridhis, lauha, vivekas, satam, shodaśan, sukhin, hridaya, tatra, adya, buddhi, arka, kratu, amsa, anka, anga, añcala, anjana, kantha, anda, anta, manda, sampurna. bro The following story has the Sanskrit and English letters interlineated. Vifise 1 2 अस्ति हस्तिनापुरे विलासो नाम रजकः । तस्य गर्द asti hastinápure viláso náma rajakaḥ tasya garda- भोऽतिभारवाहनाद् दुर्बलो मुमूर्षुर् अभवत् । ततस् तेन bho 'tibháraváhanád durbalo mumúrshur abhavat tatas tena Valike m P रजकेनासौ व्याघ्रचर्मणा प्राद्यारण्यसमीपे प्रछाद्यारण्यसमीपे शस्यक्षेत्रे rajakenúsau vyághraćarmaná pračhádyáranyasamípe śasyakshetre MC astiatrapa मोचितः । ततो दूराद् अवलोक्य व्याघ्रबुड्या क्षेत्रप tayaḥ satvaram paláyante atha kenapi sasyarakshakeņa dhúsaramaskeyadhis कम्बलकृततनुत्राणेन धनुःकाराडं सज्जीकृत्यावनतकायेन kambalakṛitatanutránena dhanuḥkándam sajjíkṛityávanatakayena ekara มะ ال एकान्ते स्थितं । ततस् तं च दूरे दृष्ट्वा गर्दभः पुष्टाङ्गो ekúnte sthitam tatas tam ća dúre drishtvá gardabhaḥ pushtán go गर्दभीयमिति मत्वा शब्दं कुर्वाणम् तदभिमुखं धावितः । gardabhiyamiti matvá śabdam kurváņas tadabhimukham dhávitaḥ laurinas ततस तेन शस्यरक्षकेण गर्दभोऽयमिति ज्ञात्वा लीलयैव tatas tena sasyarakshakeņa gardabhoʼyamiti jnátvá lílayaiva व्यापादितः ॥ ryâpâditah. The following story is to be turned into Sanskrit letters. Asti sriparvatamadhye brahmapurákhyam nagaram. Tatra sailasikhare ghantákarņo náma rákshasaḥ prativasatíti janapravádaḥ śrúyate. Ekadá ghantam ádáya paláyamánaḥ kaśćić ćauro vyághrena na |