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pendent judge and cannot be controlled by him; hence a bishop may institute a civil suit in his own Court (Whitehead, p. 100). The judicial position of the chancellor has been recently considered by the learned Dr. Tristram, Chancellor of London, and it appears that the relation of chancellor to bishop is similar to that of judge to king. Thus Dr. Tristram says: Archbishops and bishops for convenience vested by letters patent their jurisdiction in such matters in their chancellors, as the king vested the decision of civil and criminal matters in the judges of the king's courts" (Law Reports [1901] p. 123). A bishop can be compelled to appoint a chancellor. Diocesan chancellors are usually laymen and barristers, but in some cases solicitors, and in others clergymen have been appointed. Under the canons of 1604 they must be twenty-six years of age, and learned and practised in the civil and ecclesiastical laws, and at the least a Master of Arts or Bachelor of Law. There are certain oaths and declarations required of them. They may not appoint a substitute or surrogate except he be a grave minister and a graduate, or a licensed public preacher beneficed in the neighbourhood of the Court, or, if a layman, qualified as above. Under the Clergy Discipline Act of 1892 the bishop may appoint a deputy chancellor for the purposes of that Act, who must be a barrister of not less than seven years' standing or the holder of a judicial appointment. See Whitehead, Church Law, title "Judges."

Chancellor of a Cathedral, is a sort of secretary to the dean and chapter. He affixes the seal, writes letters, keeps the books, &c. (See Murray, Dictionary.)

Also the heads of Universities are called "chancellor," and the name is given to other officers whose duties are purely civil, e.g. Chancellor of the Exchequer, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. [B. W.] CHANCERY (cancellaria).—The court in which a Chancellor sits, c.g. Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice, Chancery Court of York. See ARCHES. [B. W.] CHANTRY (cantaria).-A private religious foundation, of which there were many in England before the Reformation, established for the purpose of keeping up a perpetual succession of masses and prayers for the prosperity of some particular family and the repose of the souls of deceased members of it, but especially the founder and other persons named in the deed of foundation. They owed their origin to the belief in the efficacy of prayers and masses for the dead, and were swept away as superstitious at the Reformation.

Chantries were usually founded in a church already existing, in monasteries, cathedrals, or

parish churches. All that was wanted was an altar with a little area before it, and a few appendages. Remains of these can readily be detected even now.

It was by no means unusual to have four, five, and six different chantries in a common parish church, while at cathedral and collegiate churches, such as St. Paul's, there were thirty, forty, and fifty at the time of the Reformation. Between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries there are said to have been 2000 founded in England, and there were over 180 in the city and suburbs of London. When there was no more room in the church itself chantry chapels were added, and were sometimes erected separately and remote from the church. These chantries sometimes served as chapels-of-ease and where the living was held by a person in minor orders, as was very frequently the case, the chantry priest may have said Mass for the parishioners. (Penny Cyclopædia; Cutts' Parish Priests in the Middle Ages.) [B. W.] CHAPEL. Properly, according to the etymology, a covering or canopy over an altar"; then, the recess containing the "altar"; then, a place of worship. Chapels may either form part of a church or have been erected in a parish in addition to the parish church. Side chapels in a church must be separated from the body of the church by walls or screens before a faculty will be granted for placing an additional Lord's Table therein. Private chapels belong to persons of rank or to Institutions; and by the Private Chapels Act, 1871, the bishops may license a clergyman to perform all offices therein save matrimony. Public chapels are generally divided into chapels of ease and proprietary chapels. The former are so called because built in aid of the original church; the latter are the property of private individuals, but must be licensed for divine service by the bishop, nor can any one become the minister or officiate in them without his licence. A chapel-of-ease at a distance from the parish church having a chapelry, township, or district belonging to it, may (if endowed with a competent stipend for the minister) be made by the bishop, with consent of incumbent and patron, a "separate and distinct parish for all spiritual purposes" (1 & 2 Victoria c. 107, s. 7). The nomination to chapels of ease rests almost invariably with the incumbent of the mother church, unless it be otherwise established by either prescription or agreement. A chapel may be specially licensed for the solemnisation of marriages. (See Dale, ch. v.; Cripps, B. iii. ch. 2; Whitehead, sub voce.) CHAPLAIN (Lat. capellanus).—A minister who regularly performs divine service in a chapel (q.v.), or private house. Originally applied to those who had charge of sacred relics. By

ome the word is derived from capsa, or capsella, a box in which relics are kept, by others from capa, a cloak, in particular the "holy cloak" of St. Martin; the building or tent in which this and other relics were kept being called capella, chapel. The cloak of St. Martin was at first moved about with the court of the French kings, and the clergy who had charge of it performed the duties which are still associated with the office of court chaplain. The capellani are said, therefore, to have been "first of all what are still called court chaplains, charged with worship in royal chapels" (Wetzer and Welte).

Royal chaplains in Great Britain are divided into chaplains in ordinary and honorary chaplains, and consist of episcopal and presbyterian clergy. The chaplains in ordinary are fortytwo in number, thirty-six being ministers of the Church of England (Episcopal) and six of the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian). His present Majesty is, however, understood to be making some alterations in the staff, and has ordered the wearing of a distinctive badge.

Private chaplains are those who " depend upon" a man of worth for the instruction of himself and his family, the reading of prayers, and preaching in his private house where usually they have a chapel for that purpose. An archbishop or duke is said to be entitled to six private chaplains, a marquis or earl five, a viscount or bishop four, a lord chancellor or a baron three, and various other personages two or one each. A nobleman's chaplain (if of the Church of England) by custom wears a black tippet (wider than the ordinary clergyman's), called the chaplain's scarf (Whitehead, Church Law). The ministrations of a private chaplain become public if persons not constituting part of the household are admitted, and in such cases the services must be conducted in strict accordance with law (Whitehead, pp. 89,99).

Chaplains to public institutions (e.g. schools, hospitals, &c.), if clergy of the Church of England, are now appointed under the provisions of what is somewhat curiously called "The Private Chapels Act, 1871." They have to obtain the bishop's licence, which must not include the solemnisation of marriage, and which is revocable by the bishop at any time. The chaplain so licensed is not subject to the control of the incumbent of the parish in which the chapel is situate, but nothing in the Act is to prejudice the right of such incumbent to the entire cure of souls in his parish elsewhere than within the institution and its chapel. The offertories at the chapel are at the disposition of the chaplain, subject to the direction of the ordinary.

Army chaplains have their sphere of duty

marked out under Act of Parliament and orders in Council. There is a Chaplain-General for the Church of England, who receives a stipend of £1000 a year. There are also chaplains belonging to the Church of Scotland, and to Roman Catholics and other dissenters. See Whitehead, Church Law.

Navy Chaplains.-The head Church of England chaplain is styled Chaplain of the Fleet, and receives a stipend of £759 a year. For further particulars see Whitehead, Church Law.

Cemetery, Lunatic Asylum, Prison, and Workhouse chaplains are also the subject of special regulations, as to which see Whitehead. The Houses of Parliament have also their chaplains. See CHAPEL. [B. W.] CHAPTER.—Literally, a head. A cathedral chapter is so called because "as a head" it advises the bishop in many things, and it anciently ruled and governed the diocese whenever the see was vacant. Since the thirteenth century this latter is the case only with regard to an archiepiscopal see. The chapter is generally composed of the canons and prebendaries presided by the dean. See Whitehead, Church Law. CHARACTER.-Literally, a mark cut or engraved; then the peculiar qualities of a person or thing. Character is the disposition produced by the thoughts, words, and works of any one during the passing of years. It is especially affected by the dealings of God with the soul through the providences of life, which frequently leave, under grace, a lasting impress on the character. The Church of Rome travesties this solemn truth by using the term "character" in a technical sense for "a mark or seal," supposed to be made

'on the soul, which cannot be effaced," but adds that "it is given by the Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Order," irrespectively of the life and disposition of the person receiving any of those sacraments. CHARMS.-See AMULETS.

CHASUBLE.-A cloak at first commonly worn by peasants; afterwards adopted as an ecclesiastical vestment.

The first writer that speaks of the casula, or chasuble, is St. Augustine, A.D. 354-430. He tells a story of a poor tailor at Hippo, a little before his own time, who lost his chasuble, and not having money to buy another, went to the Chapel of the Twenty Martyrs at Hippo and prayed that it might be restored to him on which the boys laughed at him for seeming to ask the Martyrs for 500 "folles," which shows us what was about the price of a chasuble, as a large-sized fish could be bought for 300 "folles" (De Civ. Dei, xxii.). In his own time, he speaks of the chasuble as a

common article of dress. "Will you go on," he says, "with a bad chasuble or a bad boot? Then why with a bad soul?" (Serm. 107). It was at this time a cloak enveloping the whole person, like the manta still worn in Spain, with the addition of a hood that might be drawn over the head. Being the ordinary dress of the poor, it was worn by monks, and Rishop Fulgentius, about A.D. 500, strictly ordered that his monks' chasubles should not be of a high price, or of a bright colour. Procopius, A.D. 530, speaks of the chasuble as being a cloak of a slave or of a common person, which a general, or a private soldier, would be ashamed of (De Bello Vindal. ii. 26). Archbishop Cæsarius, A.D. 540, left to his successor, in his will, a long-napped chasuble, which he distinguishes from his church robes. Pope Gregory I., A.D. 600, presented three pieces of money and a chasuble, that is, a cloak, to a Persian abbot who saluted him in the streets of Rome. Boniface III., A.D. 606, sent to King Pepin a chasuble made partly of silk partly of goat's hair with a long nap, on which he says that he might wipe his feet drya very singular use of a chasuble. Isidore of Seville, A.D. 620, in his De Originibus, describes the chasuble as a garment with a hood, and states that its name is a diminutive of casa, a house, because it covers the whole man like a little house (Lib. xix.). St. Boniface and a Council held at Ratisbon in 742, order presbyters and deacons not to wear the short military cloak, but the chasuble, as befitting the servants of God (Labbe, vi.).

Hitherto we have had no indication of the chasuble being a ministerial vestment, or a garment in any way peculiar to the clergy, but with the ninth century it becomes more specially clerical by ceasing to be the common dress of the people; and symbolical meanings become now attached to it. Rabanus Maurus, A.D. 800, repeating Isidore's derivation of the name from casa, a house, says that it covers all the other vestments, and therefore symbolises charity. Amalarius, A. D. 824, says that, as the chasuble is worn by all the clerical body of whatever degree, it symbolises "the works which belong to all, namely, hungering, thirsting, watching, nakedness, reading, psalmsinging, prayer, toil, teaching, silence, and everything else of that kind; when a man is clothed with them he has on his chasuble." The double fold of the chasuble between the shoulders indicated that good works should be performed both towards men and towards God; the double fold on the breast implied the need both of learning and of truth (De Eccl. Off. ii.). In a treatise of the eleventh century, wrongly attributed to Alcuin, the writer repeats that the symbolical meaning

of the chasuble is charity (De Div. Off.). Ivo Carnotensis, A.D. 1100, knows no signification of the chasuble except charity (De eccl. sacram. et officiis), nor Hugo a Sancto Victore, A.D. 1120, nor Honorius Augustodunensis, A.D. 1125. To Innocent III. it also means charity, but he likewise sees in it the symbol of the PreChristian and Post-Christian Church, because it hangs in front and behind, which, he says, is right because on Palm Sunday both those who went before and those who followed after cried, "Hosanna to the Son of David!" (De sacro altaris mysterio). Durandus, A.D. 1250, repeats the signification of charity, but adds that it also represents the wedding garment of Matt. xxii. 12, and the Catholic Church, and the vestment of Aaron, and the purple robe of Christ. By hanging both in front and behind, he says that it symbolises love to God and man, whilst its width shows that charity must reach to enemies. Its three folds on the right arm teach the duty of "succouring monks, clergy, and laity," and the three folds on the left arm the duty of "ministering to bad Christians, Jews, and Paynims."

Thus it appears that the chasuble, beginning as the ordinary outer garment of the poor, was retained by the clergy when other people changed the fashion of their clothes, and thus became their ministerial dress. But down to the end of the thirteenth century the idea of its being a sacrificial garment had not arisen. Its accepted meaning was charity. But in the thirteenth century Innocent III. and the Fourth Lateran Council introduced such wide reaching modifications of the Christian faith as almost to change its character. In 1215 Transubstantiation became the authorised belief, and auricular confession the authorised practice of the Latin Church. Transubstantiation, which is the basis of the Sacrifice of the Mass, and compulsory confession profoundly altered the conception entertained of the priesthood. The presbyter now became a sacrificing priest, and the victim that he sacrificed was no other than Christ Himself, while in the confessional he sat as the representative of God. His vesture must indicate the stupendous office which he held. The most noticeable, because the outside, garment that he wore was the chasuble; the chasuble therefore must symbolise sacrifice. By degrees it attracted to itself this character, and in the course of the subsequent centuries it became recognised as the priestly sacrificial vestment, while it underwent considerable changes in form.

But if the chasuble did not symbolise sacrifice for at least 1300 years, why should it be supposed to symbolise it now? The whole theory of the symbolical meaning of vestments, which first grew up in the ninth century, is