NOTES

OLD ENGLISH POEMS

(1) BEOWULF. Lines 189-498, 662-852, 1232-1650, 1787-1919, 2200-2820, 3120-82. The translation is based on the text of Wyatt's edition. The poem probably took its present form about the beginning of the eighth century, but the materials of which it is composed are much older. The opening lines of the first passage translated are as follows:

(1) The Cleansing of Heorot. The scene of the action is Denmark. Hrothgar, the Danish king, had built a great hall called Heorot; here he and his thanes feasted, while the gleeman sang to the music of the harp. But Grendel, a monster of the fens, offspring of Cain, ravaged Heorot, slaying many thanes as they lay asleep after the feast; and for twelve years the hall had stood desolate by night. At this point the selection begins. ¶ 1. Healfdene's son: Hrothgar. ¶5. thane of Hygelac: Beowulf, nephew of Hygelac; Hygelac, king of the Geats, was a historical character, who died about 520 A.D. in the invasion of "Friesland" referred to later in the poem. 6. Geats: a people living in the south of Sweden; perhaps the Jutes. 25. Weder-folk: Beowulf and his men; "Weders" is one name for the Geats. ¶29. Scyldings: the Danish royal house, also the Danish people; from "Scyld," the name of the founder of the dynasty.

(3) 3. Wedermark: the land of the Weders, or Geats. ¶7. Boar-likenesses: images of boars on the crests of the helmets. cheek-guards: helmets. 38. Wendlas: perhaps Vandals.

(5) 4. eotens: giants. nickers: water-demons. ¶ 20. Hrethmen: Danes; literally, "triumph-men."

(6) 40. gave them webs of war-speed: i. e., wove for them a destiny of success in war. (10) 18. Ring-Danes: Danes wearing ring-mail; an allusion to their warlike character. (11) 5. Ingwines: a name for the Danes.

(14) 11. prince of rings: prince who distributes rings, or treasure.

(17) 21. spear-holt: spear-shaft, spear. ¶39. ring-bark: ship with rings on its prow. (19) The Fight with the Dragon. ¶ 1-5. The wars and quarrels between the Geats and their neighbors referred to in this part of Beowulf (the fights of Hæthcyn and Heardred against the Swedes, the story of the Swedish exiles Eanmund and Eadgils, and the expedition of Hygelac against the West Frisians, Franks and Hugs) doubtless formed the subjects of other long tales, similar to Beowulf, with which the hearers were perfectly familiar; now that the tales are lost it is impossible to make from these tangled references any clear or precise account of what happened. Heardred: son of Hygelac, whom he succeeded as king of the Geats. Battle-Scylfings: the Scylfings were the Swedish royal family; the name was also used for the Swedish people. nephew of Hereric: Heardred. ¶ 10-14, 19-21. The MS is defective here. The words in brackets are translations of conjectural emendations.

(25) 34. Wægmundings: the family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf belonged.

(29) 5. Whale's Ness: the name of a headland. ¶36-38. The MS is defective here. The words in brackets are translations of conjectural emendations.

(30) CHARMS. The Old English Charms are clearly survivals from a very early time, when the Angles and Saxons were heathen. The "mighty women" of the second charm here given are the Valkyrie of Northern mythology, one of whose spears is supposed to have caused the "stitch." ¶33. wounded with iron strongly: i. e., hammered heavily.

(31) THE FRISIAN WIFE. From the Gnomic Verses in the Exeter Book, some of which are very ancient.

(31) RIDDLE. From the so-called Riddles of Cynewulf, the authorship of which is now considered doubtful; most of the riddles belong, however, to Cynewulf's age, the eighth century. 4. wall's roof: the horizon.

(31) THE WANDERER. Probably of the eighth century.

(33) 6. wall-place: the earth.

(33) THE BANISHED WIFE'S LAMENT. Probably of the eighth century.

(34) CEDMON'S HYMN. The earliest of the extant religious poems in Old English. The verses are at the end of the Moore MS of Bede's Ecclesiastical History, and must have been written there about the year 737.

(34) THE PHOENIX. Lines 1-84. The poem was written in the eighth century, and probably by Cynewulf. The first half, including the passage here translated, is based upon a Latin poem, Carmen de Phænice, by Lactantius (fl.300 A.D.).

(36) GENESIS. Lines 338-441 of the so-called Genesis B, which belongs to the second half of the ninth century.

(38) 16. The MS is here defective, and the words in brackets have been added in the present translation to complete the sentence.

(38) JUDITH. The poem is of the last half of the ninth century or the beginning of the tenth. The author is unknown, but evidently belonged to the school of Cynewulf. The fragment that has survived is only the last part of a poem apparently covering the whole story of Judith as told in the Old Testament Apocrypha. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Assyria, sent a great army against the land of the Jews because they had refused to help him in his war with the Medes. The advance of the army on Jerusalem was stayed at the city of Bethulia, which commanded the passes in the hill country: and the Assyrians encamped in the plain and besieged the city. At the end of four and thirty days the distress of the Bethulians was intense; the people demanded that the city be surrendered, and the rulers with great difficulty persuaded them to wait five days more for deliverance at the hand of Jehovah. At this crisis arose Judith, a widow, "exceedingly beautiful to behold," and called the rulers before her and said, "Hear me, and I will do a thing which shall go down to all generations." She revealed to them a part of her plan and bade them hold the city till her return. That night she went forth, with her maid, and entered the camp of the Assyrians. To the guards who took her she said, “I am a daughter of the Hebrews, and I flee away from their presence, because they are about to be given you to be consumed; and I am coming into the presence of Holofernes, the chief captain of your host, to declare words of truth; and I will show before him a way whereby he shall go and win all the hill country, and there shall not be lacking of his men one person nor one life." Holofernes was captivated by her beauty, and sought from the first to betray her; but she craftily protected herself, and also won the privilege of leaving the camp every night to pray. On the fourth day Holofernes made a feast, and here the extant portion of the poem begins.

(44) THE BATTLE OF MALDON. The poem is a fragment, being incomplete both at the beginning and at the end. It is based upon a historical event, an invasion of the east coast of England by Danish Vikings, in 991, and their defeat of Earl Byrhtnoth and his forces at Maldon. In the narrative the terms “earl," "prince," "Ethelred's thane," "stronghold of heroes," "lord of warriors," etc., always refer to Byrhtnoth. The warriors whose names are given are all on Byrhtnoth's side; the Vikings were all strangers to the narrator.

EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH POEMS

(49) POEMA MORALE. Lines 1−27, 90-101, 224-31, 244-51, 352-72. Poema Morale= "Moral Poem"; the title is often given as "Moral Ode." With the exceptions noted below, the text is that of the Jesus College MS as edited for the Early English Text Society.

(50) 14. The he who. ¶ 15. hit it; the antecedent is the preceding clause, not "lust." 21. eye awe. mon to man. The sense of the whole line is, Man stands more in awe of man than of Christ. ¶22, 26. The he who. ¶ 28-33. These lines are from the Trinity College MS, taking the place of seven rather confused lines in the Jesus College MS. ¶28, 30. the who. ¶43. that those that. ¶46. blysse: the reading of the Trinity College MS. 49. Avene .. .... Sture: the rivers Avon and Stour; probably those in Hampshire, not those in Warwickshire. ¶ 51. that to whom.

(51) 53. Understand "to whom" before "was." thenche: understand "evil" as the object. ¶57. other each other. 63. bever: the reading of the Trinity College MS. ¶ 68. godes of good. nys Him nowiht with-ute=there is nothing that He is without. ¶69. godes of good. wone want, lack. (51) THE BRUT. The text is that of the Cottonian MSS, Otho, C. xiii, as edited by Sir Frederic Madden, including his emendations in the footnotes. The MS is fragmentary in places, and the lines have not been numbered; but the selection here given corresponds to ll. 13,785-14,064 in the Cottonian MSS, Caligula, A. ix—a longer version. The title of the poem is derived from the name of the legendary first king of Britain, Brut, grandson of Aeneas. The selection describes the coming to Britain of a band of Angles, in the fifth century A.D., and the aid they gave the British king, Vortiger, against the Picts ("Peutes"), a barbarous people living in the north of the island, survivors of the earliest inhabitants.

(52) 35. Alemaine: Germany (from "Alemanni," the name of an early Teutonic tribe); the term is here used for a wide territory, including the region south of Denmark from which the Angles came.

(54) 90. Thonre: Thor, god of "thunder."

(55) 142. Umbre-Humber; an estuary on the northeastern coast of Britain.

(56) A BESTIARY. Lines 1-52. The text is that of the Early English Text Society edition. Natura leonis="nature of the lion." Significacio prime nature=" meaning of the first nature." 12. he: the hunter. is-them; the antecedent is "fet-steppes," 1. 7.

(57) 39. manne=of men.

(57) THE OWL AND THE NIGHTINGALE. Lines 1-94, 253-64, 315-52. The text is that of Morris and Skeat, in their Specimens of Early English, from the MSS.

(58) 21-23. he=it; the antecedent is "drem." ¶ 28. thare of the. ¶31. thare= the. 34. Me: indirect object after "wers." 43. gret: swollen with wrath.

(59) 56. bare: exposed, unprotected. ¶65. fugel-kunne: indirect object after "loth." ¶ 70. Hire thonkes of her own thoughts, i. e., willingly. ¶85. The that. ¶94. on: to be taken with "fode."

(60) 110. heo=it; the antecedent is "stefne." ¶ 128. he=it; the antecedent is "crei." ¶ 130. Thas of the. 134. heo it; the antecedent is "murhthe."

(61) 138, 139. he=it; the antecedent is "song." 141. Alvred: King Alfred the Great; the so-called Proverbs of Alfred was a popular work at this time.

(61) CURSOR MUNDI. Lines 1237-1432. The text is that of the Trinity College MS as edited for the Early English Text Society, except for a few readings from the other MSS. Cursor Mundi="Course of the World."

(63) 81. Fison-Phison, or Pison. Gison Gihon.

Tigre Tigris. Eufrate=

Euphrates. Cf. Gen. 2:11-14.

(64) 114. Kaym=Cain.

(65) 188. Noe=Noah.

(66) 192. Moyses = Moses.

(66) THE PEARL. Lines 1-120, 157-276, 301-60, 1153-76. The text is that of the

Early English Text Society edition, except for some of Gollancz' emendations. The longest omitted passage (lines 361-1152) consists chiefly of a religious homily put into the mouth of the maiden. 2. to clanly clos: "Too cleanly enclosed,' i. e., for earthly existence."— Gollancz.

(67) 41. hit itself.

(69) 129. con shere has refined.

(70) 162. upon=open.

(71) 188. in hit mesure: in its measure, adequately. ¶200. in wommon lore: in the way that women are taught.

(72) 236. "It is proved to be a pearl of price."

(73) 277. noght bot doel dystresse: sorrow naught but distress. ¶289. Deme Dryghtyn, ever Hym adyte: let the Lord decree, ever let Him ordain.

(74) 298. of lyghtly leme: i. e., lyghtly leme of, "may lightly glint away."-Gollancz. Osgood translates "lurez" as frowns," and "leme " as drive. 306. take me halte: "Strike me halt, or maimed."-Gollancz.

(74) THE PROVERBS OF HENDYNG. Lines 79-110. The text is that of the Harleian MS, as edited by Morris and Skeat in their Specimens of Early English.

(75) 20. Be thou if thou art. 21. me=men. 22. Gest thou nout-thou wilt

not go.

(76) ALYSOUN. The text is that of the Harleian MS as edited by T. Wright, in Specimens of Lyric Poetry, for the Percy Society. ¶ 7, 15, 17. he=she (O. E. "heo," she).

(77) 37. under gore=under clothes, i. e., alive.

66

(77) SPRINGTIME. The text comes from the same source as the preceding poem. (78) 22. mo=more, many others. 29. Deores: supply come as predicate. 34. "If I shall feel the need of joy from one of them."

(79) THE VIRGIN'S SONG TO HER BABY CHRIST. The text is that of the Harleian MS as edited by F. J. Furnivall, in Political, Religious, and Love Poems, for the Early English Text Society.

MIDDLE ENGLISH METRICAL ROMANCES

(79) THE LAY OF HAVELOK THE DANE. Lines 537-662. The text is that of Morris and Skeat in their Specimens of Early English. The romance is a translation of a French poem, Le Lai d'Havelok le Danois, which probably was based upon a lost Anglo-Saxon original. The story in brief is as follows. In the time of Athelwold, king of England, Birkabeyn, king of Denmark, died and left his three children in the care of his friend Godard, who was appointed regent. Godard shut up the children in a castle, and usurped the throne; before long he cut the throats of the two daughters, and ordered a fisherman, Grim, to drown the son, Havelok, in the sea. The incidents in the selection followed. Grim then fled with the royal child to England, and settled in the place which was afterward named Grimsby in his honor. When Havelok came of age he returned to Denmark, and by a series of incredibly heroic achievements regained the throne of his father.

(80) 31, 32. Skeat suggests a change of order, to get a rhyme: "And caste the knave so harde adoun That he crakede there hise croun." 36. That so that.

(81) 63. He they.

(83) SYR GAWAYN AND THE Grene KnyghT. Lines 130-466, 2160-2478. The text is that of the Early English Text Society edition, except that a few emendations suggested in the footnotes of that edition have been incorporated in the text. The romance opens with the description of a New Year banquet at the court of the legendary King Arthur, where occur the incidents narrated in the first selection. The middle portion of the story-here omitted— is briefly as follows. When New Year's day again approaches, Gawayn sets off upon his horse Gringolet in search of the Green Chapel. He comes at last to a great castle, whose lord assures him that the chapel is near by and induces him to stay at the castle until the appointed day arrives. Gawayn and his host make an agreement that every night each will give the